Summary Throughout life, adult organs continually adapt to variable environmental factors. Adaptive mechanisms must fundamentally differ from homeostatic maintenance, but little is known about how physiological factors elicit tissue remodeling. Here, we show that specialized stem cell responses underlie the adaptive resizing of a mature organ. In the adult Drosophila midgut, intestinal stem cells interpret a nutrient cue to ‘break homeostasis’ and drive growth when food is abundant. Activated in part by niche production of insulin, stem cells direct a growth program through two altered modes of behavior: accelerated division rates and predominance of symmetric division fates. Together, these altered modes produce a net increase in total intestinal cells, which is reversed upon withdrawal of food. Thus, tissue renewal programs are not committed to maintain cellular equilibrium; stem cells can remodel organs in response to physiological triggers.

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Long-term ex vivo expansion of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) proves to be unfeasible as cellular differentiation occurs when HSPCs are detached from their supporting bone marrow stem cell niche. This issue renders it difficult to make use of the proliferation capacity of HSPCs to subsequently produce functional blood cells in relevant numbers, e.g. for cell therapy approaches. To circumvent this challenge, leukemia-associated chimeric transcription factors, including MLL fusion proteins, can be exploited for their pronounced ability to propel cell proliferation while preserving cell immaturity. By designing the protein's activity controllable, the immature state can be abolished at an arbitrary point in time enabling terminal differentiation. In this study, we employed the fusion gene mixed lineage leukemia/eleven nineteen leukemia (MLL-ENL) for engineering an inducible protein switch. For this purpose, we fused the coding sequence of an FK506-Binding Protein 12 (FKBP12)-derived destabilization domain (DD) to the transcription factor MLL-ENL and subsequently expressed the protein switch (DD-MLL-ENL) in human CD34+ HSPCs derived from adult healthy donors. In the presence of the specific ligand Shield1, DD-mediated protein degradation is prevented leading to massive and long-term expansion of HSPC-derived late monocytic precursors in the presence of IL-3, IL-6, SCF, FLT3-L, TPO and GM-CSF. The cells do not exhibit additional driver mutations, feature a normal karyotype and telomere length, and sustain immaturity that is strictly dependent on Shield1 supplementation every other day even after two years of ex vivo culture. Upon Shield1 deprivation, the cells completely lost self-renewal and colony-forming properties and spontaneously differentiated. By changing the cytokines to GM-CSF in combination with IFN-γ and LPS we differentiated the progenitor cells into macrophages (MΦ) (Fig. 1 A, B). Immunophenotypic characterization revealed upregulation of the monocyte/macrophage-associated surface markers CD14, CD80, CD86, CD163 and MHC class I and II, concordant with monocytic morphology as judged by cytospin preparations. Analysis of the transcription of selected inflammatory genes, including IL-6 and IL-10, revealed overlapping M1 and M2 macrophage characteristics. Furthermore, mRNA expression profiles using nCounter Systems technology covering a total of 770 myeloid innate immunity-related genes proves the cells' identity as differentiated phagocytes shown by upregulation of gene clusters involved in Fc receptor signaling, TLR signaling, antigen presentation and T cell activation. In functional assays, we demonstrated the ability of the obtained cells to migrate towards the chemokine CCL2 in a 3D chemotaxis assay, attach to VCAM-1 under flow and shear stress and produce reactive oxygen species. Regarding the cells' phagocytic capability, we could verify the uptake of bacterial particles as well as apoptotic cells in efferocytosis assays. Finally, we demonstrated IgG Fc region recognition and binding by the expressed Fcγ receptors enabling phagocytosis of lymphoblastic tumor cells, including Daudi, Raji and patient-derived MCL cells in an antibody-dependent manner using rituximab (RTX), daratumumab (Dara) and trastuzumab (Trast) as a negative control (Fig. 1C). Overall, we could demonstrate the conversion of a harmful leukemic transcription factor into a useful molecular tool for large-scale ex vivo production of functional blood cells. Such engineered controllable protein switches might have the potential to be employed as molecular tools to produce functional immune cells for cell-based immunotherapeutic approaches. Figure 1 Figure 1. Disclosures Redondo Monte: Minaris Regenerative Medicine: Current Employment. Beier: Alexion: Speakers Bureau; Pfizer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Jazz: Other: Travel reembursement. Weigert: Janssen: Speakers Bureau; Epizyme: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Roche: Research Funding. Greif: AstraZeneca: Honoraria.