Please cite this article as: Lacey, L.A., Grzywacz, D., Shapiro-Ilan, D.I., Frutos, R., Brownbridge, M., Goettel, M.S., Insect pathogens as biological control agents: back to the future, Journal of Invertebrate Pathology (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jip.2015.07.009 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. The development and use of entomopathogens as classical, conservation and augmentative 26 biological control agents have included a number of successes and some setbacks in the past 15 27 years. In this forum paper we present current information on development, use and future 28 directions of insect-specific viruses, bacteria, fungi and nematodes as components of integrated 29 pest management strategies for control of arthropod pests of crops, forests, urban habitats, and 30 insects of medical and veterinary importance. 31Insect pathogenic viruses are a fruitful source of MCAs, particularly for the control of 32 lepidopteran pests. Most research is focused on the baculoviruses, important pathogens of some 33 globally important pests for which control has become difficult due to either pesticide resistance 34 or pressure to reduce pesticide residues. Baculoviruses are accepted as safe, readily mass 35 produced, highly pathogenic and easily formulated and applied control agents. New baculovirus 36 products are appearing in many countries and gaining an increased market share. However, the 37 absence of a practical in vitro mass production system, generally higher production costs, limited 38 post application persistence, slow rate of kill and high host specificity currently contribute to 39 of Bt toxins, has been conducted over the past two decades. The Bt genes used in insect-resistant 54 transgenic crops belong to the Cry and vegetative insecticidal protein families of toxins. Bt has 55 been highly efficacious in pest management of corn and cotton, drastically reducing the amount 56 of broad spectrum chemical insecticides used while being safe for consumers and non-target 57 organisms. Despite successes, the adoption of Bt crops has not been without controversy. 58
[1] In November 2004, a regional climate change workshop was held in Guatemala with the goal of analyzing how climate extremes had changed in the region. Scientists from Central America and northern South America brought long-term daily temperature and precipitation time series from meteorological stations in their countries to the workshop. After undergoing careful quality control procedures and a homogeneity assessment, the data were used to calculate a suite of climate change indices over the period. Analysis of these indices reveals a general warming trend in the region. The occurrence of extreme warm maximum and minimum temperatures has increased while extremely cold temperature events have decreased. Precipitation indices, despite the large and expected spatial variability, indicate that although no significant increases in the total amount are found, rainfall events are intensifying and the contribution of wet and very wet days are enlarging. Temperature and precipitation indices were correlated with northern and equatorial Atlantic and Pacific Ocean sea surface temperatures. However, those indices having the largest significant trends (percentage of warm days, precipitation intensity, and contribution from very wet days) have low correlations to El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Additionally, precipitation indices show a higher correlation with tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures.
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