Many fishes possess specialized epidermal cells that are ruptured by the teeth of predators, thus reliably indicating the presence of an actively foraging predator. Understanding the evolution of these cells has intrigued evolutionary ecologists because the release of these alarm chemicals is not voluntary. Here, we show that predation pressure does not influence alarm cell production in fishes. Alarm cell production is stimulated by exposure to skin-penetrating pathogens (water moulds: Saprolegnia ferax and Saprolegnia parasitica), skin-penetrating parasites (larval trematodes: Teleorchis sp. and Uvulifer sp.) and correlated with exposure to UV radiation. Suppression of the immune system with environmentally relevant levels of Cd inhibits alarm cell production of fishes challenged with Saprolegnia. These data are the first evidence that alarm substance cells have an immune function against ubiquitous environmental challenges to epidermal integrity. Our results indicate that these specialized cells arose and are maintained by natural selection owing to selfish benefits unrelated to predator-prey interactions. Cell contents released when these cells are damaged in predator attacks have secondarily acquired an ecological role as alarm cues because selection favours receivers to detect and respond adaptively to public information about predation.
Ecological theory predicts that the timing of the transition between life-history stages should vary with the costs and benefits associated with each stage. For example, the timing of hatching or metamorphosis may vary with the predation risk in each stage. Predator-induced changes in hatching time are well documented in some taxa but have not been reported in fishes. We provide the first empirical evidence that a species of fish can alter its hatching time in response to predator cues. We showed that fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque, 1820, exposed to chemical cues from virile crayfish, Orconectes virilis (Hagen, 1870), foraging on minnow embryos hatch sooner than those exposed to a blank control. Moreover, in the presence of cues from virile crayfish feeding on minnow embryos, the hatchlings exhibited a change in morphology because they had significantly shorter total lengths. There was a significant positive correlation between hatchling size and length of the developmental period, except in the high predation threat treatment. By hatching earlier, the fathead minnows escaped predation from virile crayfish that were actively foraging on fathead minnow eggs. Hatching at a smaller size, however, may make the fry more vulnerable to other predators.
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