A crucial step in any ethological study is to distinguish and classify the observed behavior into categories. The literature on anuran antipredator mechanisms is largely scattered and descriptive due to the opportunistic nature of the observations and the lack of a simple, widely accepted classification scheme. We propose an explanatory classification system of antipredator mechanisms for post-metamorphic anurans (i.e., juveniles and adults) based on a thorough review of the literature and observations made during fieldwork and in the laboratory since 1970. In addition, we provide a freely available global database on antipredator mechanisms of post-metamorphic anurans. The classification system is composed of 12 antipredator mechanisms and 28 variations distributed into three stages of defense (avoid detection, prevent attack, and counterattack). The database comprises 650 species and 39 families providing a unique opportunity to investigate ecological and evolutionary questions regarding antipredator mechanisms of anuran. We provide a general overview of geographic, taxonomic and phylogenetic patterns found in the database. Both our studies and that of our colleagues added 70 species 2 to the database. The number of publications on antipredator mechanisms increased substantially after the year 2000. We hope to spark a renewed interest in antipredator mechanisms of post-metamorphic anurans to understand further the evolution of predator-prey interactions. Significance statement Predation is a phenomenon of great ecological and evolutionary significance. Hence, the study of antipredator mechanisms may provide some of the most fascinating answers to questions regarding species "struggle for existence". Based on extensive fieldwork, laboratory observations and a thorough literature survey, we propose a classification system of antipredator mechanisms for anurans, and provide a database of antipredator mechanisms elicited by frogs. We describe each mechanism, discuss the variations, and provide images for most antipredator mechanisms.

A new conservation strategy incorporates functional, phylogenetic, and taxonomic diversity for improved cost-effective outcomes.

Reptiles are highly susceptible to climate change, responding negatively to thermal and rainfall alterations mainly in relation to their reproductive processes. Based on that, we evaluated the effects of climate change on climatically suitable areas for the occurrence of snakes in the Atlantic Forest hotspot, considering the responses of distinct reproductive groups (oviparous and viviparous). We assessed the species richness and turnover patterns affected by climate change and projected the threat status of each snake species at the end of the century. We also evaluated the effectiveness of the protected areas in safeguarding the species by estimating the mean percentage overlap between snake species distribution and protected areas (PAs) network and by assessing whether such areas will gain or lose species under climate change. Our results showed greater species richness in the eastern-central portion of the Atlantic Forest at present. In general, we evidenced a drastic range contraction of the snake species under climate change. Temporal turnover tends to be high in the western and north-eastern edges of the biome, particularly for oviparous species. Our predictions indicate that 73.6% of oviparous species and 67.6% of viviparous species could lose at least half of their original range by 2080. We also found that existing protected areas of the Atlantic Forest Hotspot have a very limited capacity to safeguard snakes at the current time, maintaining the precarious protection in the future, with the majority of them predicted to lose species at the end of this century. Although oviparous and viviparous snakes have been designated to be dramatically impacted, our study suggests a greater fragility of the former in the face of climate change. We advocated that the creation of new protected areas and/or the redesign of the existing network to harbour regions that maximize the snake species occupancy in the face of future warming scenarios are crucial measures for the conservation of this group.