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Flutes and tool marks are commonly observed sedimentary structures on the bases of sandstones in deep-water successions. These sole structures are universally used as palaeocurrent indicators but, in sharp contrast to most sedimentary structures, they are not used in palaeohydraulic reconstructions or to aid prediction of the spatial distribution of sediments. Since Kuenen's famous 1953 paper, flutes and tool marks in deep-water systems have been linked to turbidity currents, as reflected in the standard Bouma sequence taught to generations of geologists. Yet, these structures present a series of unaddressed enigmas. Detailed field studies in the 1960s and early 1970s observed that flutes are typically associated with thicker, more proximal beds, whilst tools are generally prevalent in thinner, more distal, beds. Additionally, flutes and tool marks are rarely observed on the same surfaces, and flutes are seen to change downstream from larger wider parabolic to smaller narrower spindle-shaped forms. No model has been proposed that explains these field-based observations. This contribution undertakes a radical reexamination of the formative flow conditions of flutes and tool marks, and demonstrates that they are the products of a wide range of sediment gravity flows, from turbulent flows, through transitional clay-rich flows, to debris flows. Flutes are not solely the product of turbulent flows, but can continue to form in transitional flows. Grooves are shown to be formed by debris flows, slumps and slides, not turbidity currents, and in many cases the debris flows are linked to the debritic component of hybrid flows. Discontinuous tool marks, including skim (bounce) marks, prod marks and skip marks, are shown to be formed by transitional mud-rich flows. Consequently, the observed spatial distribution of flutes and tool marks can be explained by a progressive increase in flow cohesivity downstream. This model of flutes and tool marks dovetails with models of hybrid flows that predict such a longitudinal increase in flow cohesivity. However, some deposits show grooves preferentially associated with Bouma T A beds, and these are likely formed by flows transforming from higher to lower cohesion, and are present 1601 in basins where hybrid beds are absent or rare. The recognition that sole structures may have no genetic link to the later overlying turbidity current deposits, and can be formed by a wide range of flow types, indicates that the existing pictorial description of the Bouma sequence is incorrect. A modified Bouma sequence is proposed here that addresses these points. In utilizing the advances in fluid dynamics since Kuenen's pioneering research, this study demonstrates that it is possible to use flutes and tool marks to interpret flow type at the point of formation, the nature of flow transformations, and the mechanics of the basal layer. These advances suggest that it is then possible to predict the nature of deposit type down-dip. This new understanding, in combination with further testing in outcrop of t...

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In subaerial and submarine meander bends, fluid flow travels downstream in a helical spiral, the structure of which is determined by centrifugal, hydrostatic, baroclinic, and Coriolis forces that together balance frictional stresses generated by the flow. The sense of rotation of this helical flow, and in particular, whether the near bed flow is directed toward the inner bank, e.g., “river‐normal,” or outer bank, e.g., “river‐reversed,” is crucial to the morphodynamic evolution of the channel. However, in recent years, there has been a debate over the river‐normal or river‐reversed nature of submarine flows. Herein, we develop a novel three‐dimensional closure of secondary flow dynamics, incorporating downstream convective material transport, to cast new light on this debate. Specifically, we show that the presence of net radial material transport, arising from flow superelevation and overspill, exerts a key control on the near bed orientation of secondary flow in submarine meanders. Our analysis implies that river‐reversed flows are likely to be much more prevalent throughout submarine‐canyon fan systems than prior studies have indicated.

Sediment-laden gravity currents, or turbidity currents, are density-driven flows that transport vast quantities of particulate material across the floor of lakes and oceans. Turbidity currents are generated by slope failure or initiated when a sediment-laden flow enters into a lake or ocean; here, lofting or convective sedimentation processes may control flow dynamics. Depending upon the internal turbulent mixing, which keeps particles in suspension, turbidity currents can travel for thousands of kilometers across the seafloor. However, despite several competing theories, the process for the ultralong runout of these flows remains enigmatic. Turbidity currents often generate large sinuous channel–levee systems, and the dynamics of how turbidity currents flow around channel bends are strongly influenced by internal density and velocity structure, with large-scale flows being modified by the Coriolis force. Therefore, understanding some of the largest sedimentary structures on the Earth's surface depends on the turbulence processes within turbidity currents. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Volume 53 is January 7, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.