Owing to their considerable beneficial effects on human health, probiotics have been increasingly incorporated into food products. However, many findings have demonstrated that their survival and stability are very sensitive to processing and host gastrointestinal tract. To solve these problems, encapsulation techniques have been received considerable attention these days. So, in this review paper, methods for probiotics encapsulation, alginate-based and protein-based materials for probiotics encapsulation and application of encapsulated probiotics in food industry were discussed.
Introduction Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) represents a cognitively normal state but at an increased risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recognizing the glucose metabolic biomarkers of SCD could facilitate the location of areas with metabolic changes at an ultra-early stage. The objective of this study was to explore glucose metabolic biomarkers of SCD at the region of interest (ROI) level. Methods This study was based on cohorts from two tertiary medical centers, and it was part of the SILCODE project (NCT03370744). Twenty-six normal control (NC) cases and 32 SCD cases were in cohort 1; 36 NCs, 23 cases of SCD, 32 cases of amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCIs), 32 cases of AD dementia (ADDs), and 22 cases of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLBs) were in cohort 2. Each subject underwent [18F]fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and subjects from cohort 1 additionally underwent amyloid-PET scanning. The ROI analysis was based on the Anatomical Automatic Labeling (AAL) template; multiple permutation tests and repeated cross-validations were conducted to determine the metabolic differences between NC and SCD cases. In addition, receiver operating characteristic curves were used to evaluate the capabilities of potential glucose metabolic biomarkers in distinguishing different groups. Pearson correlation analysis was also performed to explore the correlation between glucose metabolic biomarkers and neuropsychological scales or amyloid deposition. Results Only the right middle temporal gyrus (RMTG) passed the methodological verification, and its metabolic levels were correlated with the degrees of complaints (R = − 0.239, p = 0.009), depression (R = − 0.200, p = 0.030), and abilities of delayed memory (R = 0.207, p = 0.025), and were weakly correlated with cortical amyloid deposition (R = − 0.246, p = 0.066). Furthermore, RMTG metabolism gradually decreased across the cognitive continuum, and its diagnostic efficiency was comparable (NC vs. ADD, aMCI, or DLB) or even superior (NC vs. SCD) to that of the metabolism of the posterior cingulate cortex or precuneus. Conclusions These findings suggest that the hypometabolism of RMTG could be a typical feature of SCD, and the large-scale hypometabolism in patients with symptomatic stages of AD may start from the RMTG, which gradually progresses starting in the preclinical stage. The specificity of identifying SCD from the perspective of self-perceived symptoms is likely to be increased by the detection of RMTG metabolism.
In this work, alginate-whey protein was used as wall materials for encapsulating
Background Blood biomarkers that can be used for preclinical Alzheimer’s disease (AD) diagnosis would enable trial enrollment at a time when the disease is potentially reversible. Here, we investigated plasma neuronal-derived extracellular vesicle (nEV) cargo in patients along the Alzheimer’s continuum, focusing on cognitively normal controls (NCs) with high brain β-amyloid (Aβ) loads (Aβ+). Methods The study was based on the Sino Longitudinal Study on Cognitive Decline project. We enrolled 246 participants, including 156 NCs, 45 amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) patients, and 45 AD dementia (ADD) patients. Brain Aβ loads were determined using positron emission tomography. NCs were classified into 84 Aβ− NCs and 72 Aβ+ NCs. Baseline plasma nEVs were isolated by immunoprecipitation with an anti-CD171 antibody. After verification, their cargos, including Aβ, tau phosphorylated at threonine 181, and neurofilament light, were quantified using a single-molecule array. Concentrations of these cargos were compared among the groups, and their receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were constructed. A subset of participants underwent follow-up cognitive assessment and magnetic resonance imaging. The relationships of nEV cargo levels with amyloid deposition, longitudinal changes in cognition, and brain regional volume were explored using correlation analysis. Additionally, 458 subjects in the project had previously undergone plasma Aβ quantification. Results Only nEV Aβ was included in the subsequent analysis. We focused on Aβ42 in the current study. After normalization of nEVs, the levels of Aβ42 were found to increase gradually across the cognitive continuum, with the lowest in the Aβ− NC group, an increase in the Aβ+ NC group, a further increase in the aMCI group, and the highest in the ADD group, contributing to their diagnoses (Aβ− NCs vs. Aβ+ NCs, area under the ROC curve values of 0.663; vs. aMCI, 0.857; vs. ADD, 0.957). Furthermore, nEV Aβ42 was significantly correlated with amyloid deposition, as well as longitudinal changes in cognition and entorhinal volume. There were no differences in plasma Aβ levels among NCs, aMCI, and ADD individuals. Conclusions Our findings suggest the potential use of plasma nEV Aβ42 levels in diagnosing AD-induced cognitive impairment and Aβ+ NCs. This biomarker reflects cortical amyloid deposition and predicts cognitive decline and entorhinal atrophy.
Highlights At-risk AD-related metabolic covariance patterns were proposed for cognitively NCs. Patterns were cross-validated in two independent cohorts of Chinese and Americans. Pattern expression scores were significantly higher in Aβ+ NCs than in Aβ- NCs. Pattern expression scores were stable over time based on follow-up data. Pattern expression scores correlated with CSF tau biomarkers, but not with brain Aβ deposition.
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