Afghanistan's agricultural sector is extremely important. It provides livelihoods for almost 80% of the population; however, due to 25 years of conflict, Afghanistan's agricultural sector has been left in ruins. After the fall of the Taliban regime, the world has taken a more proactive approach in rebuilding the country. The Afghan government and NGOs have started to create programs that enhance agricultural production throughout the country. This paper is a synthesis of the literature spanning 2000-2008 pertaining to what has been done thus far in the country and what entities were responsible for those outcomes. This study describes the role of the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Land's Division of Extension and how that division has addressed problems in the agricultural sector. The literature suggests that NGOs play a vital role in Extension program implementation, while the Ministry of Agriculture serves primarily as a regulatory body.
The aim of this study was to identify probable intermediate biomarkers of disturbed pathways and their link between smoking. Methods Un-stimulated whole saliva and serum samples were collected from a total of 30 systemically healthy participants with periodontally healthy smokers (S) (n=15) and nonsmokers (n=15). Periodontal indices (plaque index, gingival index, probing depth, bleeding on probing, clinical attachment level) were recorded to confirm periodontal health. Saliva was purified, and a total of 28 amino acids and metabolites were analyzed by liquid chromatographymass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Smoking status was validated measuring serum cotinine levels. Intergroup comparisons were assessed using the Mann Whitney U test. Results When 28 amino acids were evaluated, smokers had statistically significantly higher cystathionine levels than non-smokers (p <0.05). Conclusions Saliva cystathionine is associated with smoking in periodontally healthy individuals, and is possibly related to altered sulfuration pathway.
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