-The role of European wild ungulates in the epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) is still under discussion. This study describes the geographical distribution and molecular typing of 77 Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates belonging either to M. bovis or to M. caprae, cultivated from hunter harvested red deer (Cervus elaphus) and European wild boar (Sus scrofa) in 24 Spanish localities, and compares them with spoligotypes detected previously in humans, livestock or wild animals, as described in the literature. The distribution of the molecular type patterns suggests that the population of M. tuberculosis complex strains isolated from Spanish wild ungulates is spatially structured despite the lack of important geographical barriers and despite the increasingly frequent wildlife translocations. Red deer and the European wild boar can share the same molecular types in localities in which the M. tuberculosis complex was isolated from both species. Strains of bovine and caprine origin do circulate in the same local wildlife populations. Six out of 11 spoligotypes were similar to types described in human cases. The isolation of TB strains in fenced estates from wild animals that have not had contact with domestic livestock for at least the past two decades, strongly suggests that the M. tuberculosis complex is able to survive in these populations. Therefore, wildlife including cervids and the wild boar need to be considered in the epidemiology and control of tuberculosis. epidemiology / reservoir / typing / tuberculosis / wildlife

The proportion of recurrent tuberculosis (TB) cases caused by re-infection has varied widely in previous studies. The aim of the present study was to determine the relative frequency of relapse and exogenous re-infection in patients with second episodes of TB, using DNA fingerprinting.A population-based retrospective longitudinal descriptive study was conducted in Madrid (Spain) during 1992-2004. The study consisted of 645 patients with culture-confirmed TB. Of these, 20 (3.1%) were retained because they presented with a second isolate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Finally, 12 of these cases were excluded because they did not complete the full treatment prescribed. All strains were typed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and some by mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number of tandem repeats analysis. The patients with recurrent TB were compared with those without recurrent TB.For seven out of the eight patients, the restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains from the episodes of recurrent disease showed identical initial and final genotypes, indicating relapse; the remaining recurrent case showed different genotypes, suggesting exogenous re-infection.Re-infection is possible among people in developed countries, but the rates are lower than those occurring in high-risk areas. The risk factors for recurrent tuberculosis should be taken into account in the follow-up of treatment and tuberculosis control strategies.

Hundreds of impact craters on Mars contain diverse phyllosilicates, interpreted as excavation products of preexisting subsurface deposits following impact and crater formation. This has been used to argue that the conditions conducive to phyllosilicate synthesis, which require the presence of abundant and long-lasting liquid water, were only met early in the history of the planet, during the Noachian period (>3.6 Gy ago), and that aqueous environments were widespread then. Here we test this hypothesis by examining the excavation process of hydrated minerals by impact events on Mars and analyzing the stability of phyllosilicates against the impact-induced thermal shock. To do so, we first compare the infrared spectra of thermally altered phyllosilicates with those of hydrated minerals known to occur in craters on Mars and then analyze the postshock temperatures reached during impact crater excavation. Our results show that phyllosilicates can resist the postshock temperatures almost everywhere in the crater, except under particular conditions in a central area in and near the point of impact. We conclude that most phyllosilicates detected inside impact craters on Mars are consistent with excavated preexisting sediments, supporting the hypothesis of a primeval and long-lasting global aqueous environment. When our analyses are applied to specific impact craters on Mars, we are able to identify both pre-and postimpact phyllosilicates, therefore extending the time of local phyllosilicate synthesis to post-Noachian times.hydrothermal activity | impact cratering | Martian clays V isible-infrared spectrometers orbiting Mars have identified multiple classes of hydrous minerals related to past aqueous activity (1-3). Phyllosilicates are particularly abundant and continue to be identified by OMEGA (Observatoire pour la Minér-alogie, L'Eau, les Glaces et l'Activité, onboard Mars Express) (1) and CRISM (Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars, onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter) (2). Phyllosilicates are indicative of the interaction of liquid water with rocks on or near the surface and have been identified in outcrops and scarps, such as depressions (3) and valleys (1), and in association with hundreds of impact craters in the southern highlands (2). These relationships have been interpreted to indicate that phyllosilicates are very old, early Noachian deposits (1, 3) formed in a time when the global environment on Mars was characterized by the presence of significant amounts of surface liquid water at very cold temperatures (4, 5). These phyllosilicate deposits were later buried by more recent materials and then exposed locally by impacts, faulting, or erosion.We test this hypothesis here by analyzing the thermodynamically irreversible effects of the impact process, with an emphasis on the postshock heating and the extent of dehydration, dehydroxylation, and decomposition of preexisting hydrated minerals in the preimpact target. Our objective is to determine whether the occurrences and spatial distribution...

The epidemiology of subclinical salmonellosis in wild birds in a region of high Salmonella prevalence in pigs was studied. Three hundred and seventy-nine faecal samples from 921 birds trapped in 31 locations nearby pig premises, and 431 samples from 581 birds of 10 natural settings far from pig farms were analysed for the presence of Salmonella spp. Positive samples were serotyped and analysed for antimicrobial resistance (AR). Phage typing and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) on Salmonella Typhimurium isolates were also carried out. The overall proportion of Salmonella-positive samples was 1.85% (95% CI=0.93, 2.77). Salmonella isolation was positively associated with samples collected from birds in the proximity of a pig operation (OR=16.5; 95% CI=5.17, 52.65), and from non-migratory (or short-distance migration) birds (OR=7.6; 95% CI=1.20, 48.04) and negatively related to mostly granivorous birds (OR=0.4; 95% CI=0.15, 1.13). Salmonella Typhimurium was the most prevalent serotype and four different XbaI PFGE patterns were observed that matched the four phage types identified (U310, U311, DT164 and DT56). Only 20% of the strains showed multi-AR. In three farms, a high degree of homogeneity among isolates from different birds was observed. These findings suggested that pig farms may act as amplifiers of this infection among wild birds, and the degree of bird density may have much to do on this transmission. Some of the Salmonella serotypes isolated from bird faeces were of potential zoonotic transmission and associated with AR. Monitoring salmonellosis in wild bird is advised.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the GenoType MTBDRsl assay (Hain Lifescience GmbH, Nehren, Germany) for its ability to detect resistance to fluoroquinolones (FLQ), injectable second-line antibiotics [kanamycin (KM) and capreomycin (CM)], and ethambutol (EMB) in Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical strains and directly in clinical samples. A total of 34 clinical strains were characterized with the Bactec 460 TB system. Fifty-four clinical samples from 16 patients (5 were smear negative and 49 were smear positive) were also tested directly. The corresponding isolates of the clinical specimens were also analyzed with the Bactec 460TB. When there was a discrepancy between assays, pyrosequencing was performed. The overall rates of concordance of the MTBDRsl and the Bactec 460TB for the detection of FLQ, KM/CM, and EMB susceptibility in clinical strains were 72.4% (21/29), 88.8% (24/27), and 67.6% (23/34), whereas for clinical samples, rates were 86.5% (45/52), 92.3% (48/52), and 56% (28/50), respectively. In conclusion, the GenoType MTBDRsl assay may be a useful tool for making early decisions regarding KM/CM susceptibility and to a lesser extent regarding FLQ and EMB susceptibility. The test is able to detect mutations in both clinical strains and samples with a short turnaround time. However, for correct management of patients with extensively drugresistant tuberculosis, results must be confirmed by a phenotypical method. E fficient tuberculosis (TB) control is based on an early diagnosis followed by the rapid identification of drug resistance, in order to treat patients adequately, break the chain of transmission, and avoid the spread of resistant strains (38). Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains resistant at least to isoniazid (INH) and rifampin (RIF), which are two of the main firstline anti-TB drugs, have emerged worldwide and seriously threaten TB control and prevention programs. At the same time, the emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB), defined as MDR TB with additional resistance to fluoroquinolones (FLQ) [moxifloxacin (MOX), ofloxacin (OFL), and levofloxacin] and at least one of the three injectable second-line drugs [amikacin (AM), kanamycin (KM), and capreomycin (CM)], has also become an important global health problem.Conventional methods for detecting XDR strains are sequential, because they are applied once a strain has grown in solid or liquid medium and has been shown to be resistant to first-line drugs, mainly RIF and INH. As a consequence, the pattern of resistance to second-line drugs becomes available later. In addition, methods of detecting resistance to second-line drugs are not fully standardized (19,39), so the comparison of resistance incidences between different geographical settings is difficult.Regarding first-line drugs, mutations related to INH and RIF resistance have been extensively investigated and involve mainly the rpoB, katG, and inhA genes (30). Ethambutol (EMB) is another first-line drug, and its resistance has been rel...