T helper 9 (Th9) cells are specialized for the production of IL-9, promote allergic inflammation in mice, and are associated with allergic disease in humans. It has not been determined whether Th9 cells express a characteristic transcriptional signature. In this study, we performed microarray analysis to identify genes enriched in Th9 cells compared with other Th subsets. This analysis defined a transcriptional regulatory network required for the expression of a subset of Th9-enriched genes. The activator protein 1 (AP1) family transcription factor BATF (B cell, activating transcription factor-like) was among the genes enriched in Th9 cells and was required for the expression of IL-9 and other Th9-associated genes in both human and mouse T cells. The expression of BATF was increased in Th9 cultures derived from atopic infants compared with Th9 cultures from control infants. T cells deficient in BATF expression had a diminished capacity to promote allergic inflammation compared with wild-type controls. Moreover, mouse Th9 cells ectopically expressing BATF were more efficient at promoting allergic inflammation than control transduced cells. These data indicate that BATF is a central regulator of the Th9 phenotype and contributes to the development of allergic inflammation.

Selectins are glycan-binding adhesion molecules which mediate the initial steps of leukocyte recognition of endothelium. Cytokines control numerous aspects of CD4 T helper differentiation, but how cytokines control induction of ligands for E- and P-selectin on T helper subsets remains poorly understood. Among 20 cytokines that affect T helper cell differentiation, we identified six, IL-12, IL-18, IL-27, IL-9, IL-25 and TGFβ1, that induce expression of selectin ligands on murine CD4 T cells above the low levels associated with TCR engagement. Collectively, these six cytokines could potentially account for selectin ligand expression on all of the currently defined non-sessile T helper lineages, including Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17 and Treg. Induction of selectin ligand expression by each of these six cytokines was almost completely inhibited by pharmacologic inhibition of p38 MAPK, but not other MAPKs, or by conditional genetic deletion of p38 alpha MAPK. Analysis of the expression of key glycosyltransferase genes revealed that p38 alpha signaling was selectively required for induction of Fut7 and Gcnt1, but not for induction of St3gal4 or St3gal6. Constitutively active MKK6, an immediate upstream activator of p38 MAPK, induced selectin ligand expression equivalent to that of cytokines, and this induction was completely dependent on expression of p38 alpha. Our results identify the repertoire of cytokines responsible for selectin ligand induction on CD4 T cells and provide a mechanistic link between T helper development and T cell migration.

PU.1 is an ETS family transcription factor important for the development of multiple hematopoietic cell lineages. Previous work demonstrated a critical role for PU.1 in promoting Th9 development, and in limiting Th2 cytokine production. Whether PU.1 has functions in other T helper lineages is not clear. In this report we examined the effects of ectopic expression of PU.1 in CD4+T cells and observed decreased expression of genes involved with the function of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, including Il21 and Tnfsf5 (encoding CD40L). T cells from conditional mutant mice that lack expression of PU.1 in T cells (Sfpi1lck−/−) demonstrated increased production of CD40L and IL-21 in vitro. Following adjuvant-dependent or adjuvant-independent immunization, we observed that Sfpi1lck−/− mice had increased numbers of Tfh cells, increased germinal center B cells, and increased antibody production in vivo. This correlated with increased expression of IL-21 and CD40L in Tfh cells from Sfpi1lck−/− mice, compared to control mice. Finally, although blockade of IL-21 did not affect germinal center B cells in Sfpi1lck−/− mice, anti-CD40L treatment of immunized Sfpi1lck−/− mice decreased germinal center B cell numbers and antigen-specific immunoglobulin concentrations. Together, these data indicate an inhibitory role of PU.1 in the function of T follicular helper cells, germinal centers, and Tfh-dependent humoral immunity.

Th17 cells are critical for the clearance of extracellular bacteria and fungi, but also contribute to the pathology of autoimmune diseases and allergic inflammation. Following exposure to an appropriate cytokine environment, Th17 cells can acquire a Th1-like phenotype, but less is known about their ability to adopt Th2 and Th9 effector programs. To explore this in more detail, we used an IL-17F lineage tracer mouse strain that allows tracking of cells that formerly expressed IL-17F. In vitro derived Th17 cells adopted signature cytokine and transcription factor expression when cultured under Th1, Th2 or Th9-polarizing conditions. In contrast, using two models of allergic airway disease (AAD), Th17 cells from the lungs of diseased mice did not adopt Th1, Th2 or Th9 effector programs, but remained stable IL-17-secretors. Although in vitro derived Th17 cells expressed IL-4Rα, those induced in vivo during AAD did not, possibly rendering them unresponsive to IL-4-induced signals. However, in vitro derived antigen-specific Th17 cells transferred in vivo to OVA and alum-sensitized mice also maintained IL-17 secretion and did not produce alternative cytokines upon subsequent OVA challenge. Thus, although Th17 cells can adopt new phenotypes in response to some inflammatory environments, our data suggest that in allergic inflammation, Th17 cells are comparatively stable, and retain the potential to produce IL-17. This might reflect a cytokine environment that promotes Th17 stability, and allow a broader immune response at tissue barriers that are susceptible to allergic inflammation.