This paper describes a new type of experimental method for accurately measuring diffusion coefficients in gaseous systems. The change of composition in the diffusion cell is followed by measuring the change in refractive index with an interferometer. Results obtained using this method compare favorably with some values reported in the earlier literature. In addition, values are reported for new systems not studied previously. A comparison is made between measured values and those calculated from viscosity data.
No abstract
Ethological recording procedures measured collateral behavior in pigeons whose key-pecking performance was suppressed during a tone that ended with unavoidable electric shock. Independent recordings of gross behavior were made by two observers throughout 60-sec intervals immediately before, during, and after tone presentation. Results indicated significant reductions in the frequency of collateral movements and an increase in the time between successive movements during tone presentations. These effects were observed in all subjects, despite differences in the sequential patterns of behavior. Only partial recovery of the behavior evidenced before tone presentation was found during a 60-sec interval following shock. It was concluded that conditioned suppression procedures caused the bird to "freeze" during tone presentation and in this fashion produced a general inhibitory effect on ongoing overt activity, including key pecking.A stimulus that repeatedly precedes an inescapable noxious event can acquire the capacity to reduce the rate of responding maintained by positive reinforcement (Estes and Skinner, 1941). This effect is known as conditioned suppression and has been suggested as a quantitative index of conditioned emotional behavior (Brady and Hunt, 1955).The conditioned suppression effect is frequently explained in terms of the elicitation of conditioned respondents during the pre-shock stimulus. Thus, Brady and Hunt (1955) characterized the conditioned suppression phenomenon as the result of a generalized or nonspecific inhibitory effect of the pre-shock stimulus on all overt behavior. They noted that when a rat trained to press a lever for food is subjected to the Estes-Skinner procedure, the disruption in lever pressing during the pre-shock stimulus is accompanied by characteristic crouching, immobility, and defecation. These reactions were subsumed under the term "freezing" and employed, in part, as evidence for an emotional state. Alternatively, Dinsmoor (1954, 1955 and Weiskrantz (1968) Weiskrantz (1968) proposed that movements that minimize the noxious qualities of a stimulus such as electric shock may increase in frequency during a pre-shock stimulus and physically prevent the subject from maintaining the baseline behavior. Thus, according to this view, to suggest that the pre-shock stimulus controls a conditioned emotional state that disrupts the rate of large classes of behavior through an inhibitory influence may be inappropriate or, at best, incomplete.The present study was designed to assess the behavioral changes produced by the EstesSkinner procedure in pigeons trained to peck a key under a schedule of food presentation. Specifically, the study was to determine whether the conditioned suppression phenomenon is characterized by a reduction in the rate of all ongoing behavioral movements (i.e., freezing) or whether, alternatively, subjects engage in other movements that increase in frequency during a pre-shock stimulus and prevent a maintenance of baseline responding. In the present research, ...
The relation between aspects of depression and the wish to be held was studied in 72 male and 57 female college students. Females reported higher levels of depressive experiences associated with issues of dependency as well as more intense wishes to be held. In both sexes the intensity of the wish to be held was related to dependency; however, it was the correlations of these variables with level of depression that revealed differences between males and females. In males, the wish to be held covaried positively with the overall level of depression, whereas in females it remained invariant across levels of depression. Thus, males who describe themselves as more depressed, relative to other males, expressed more feelings associated with dependency and more intense wishes to be held.
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