SUMMARY Initiation of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) is definitively linked to activating mutations in the KRAS oncogene. However, PDA mouse models show that mutant Kras expression early in development gives rise to a normal pancreas, with tumors forming only after a long latency or pancreatitis induction. Here we show that oncogenic KRAS upregulates endogenous EGFR expression and activation, the latter being dependent upon the EGFR ligand sheddase, ADAM17. Genetic ablation or pharmacological inhibition of EGFR or ADAM17 effectively eliminates KRAS-driven tumorigenesis in vivo. Without EGFR activity, active RAS levels are not sufficient to induce robust MEK/ERK activity, a requirement for epithelial transformation.
SUMMARY We report that two oncogenes co-amplified on chromosome 3q26, PRKCI and SOX2, cooperate to drive a stem-like phenotype in lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC). PKCι phosphorylates SOX2, a master transcriptional regulator of stemness, and recruits it to the promoter of Hedgehog Acyl Transferase (HHAT), which catalyzes the rate-limiting step in Hh ligand production. PKCι-mediated SOX2 phosphorylation is required for HHAT promoter occupancy, HHAT expression, and maintenance of a stem-like phenotype. Primary LSCC tumors coordinately overexpress PKCι, SOX2, and HHAT, and require PKCι-SOX2-HHAT signaling to maintain a stem-like phenotype. Thus, PKCι and SOX2 are genetically, biochemically and functionally linked in LSCC, and together they drive tumorigenesis by establishing a cell autonomous Hh signaling axis.
Protein kinase C βII (PKC βII) has been implicated in proliferation of the intestinal epithelium. To investigate PKC βII function in vivo, we generated transgenic mice that overexpress PKC βII in the intestinal epithelium. Transgenic PKC βII mice exhibit hyperproliferation of the colonic epithelium and an increased susceptibility to azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci, preneoplastic lesions in the colon. Furthermore, transgenic PKC βII mice exhibit elevated colonic β-catenin levels and decreased glycogen synthase kinase 3β activity, indicating that PKC βII stimulates the Wnt/adenomatous polyposis coli (APC)/β-catenin proliferative signaling pathway in vivo. These data demonstrate a direct role for PKC βII in colonic epithelial cell proliferation and colon carcinogenesis, possibly through activation of the APC/β-catenin signaling pathway.
Protein kinase C ι (PKCι) has been implicated in Ras signaling, however, a role for PKCι in oncogenic Ras-mediated transformation has not been established. Here, we show that PKCι is a critical downstream effector of oncogenic Ras in the colonic epithelium. Transgenic mice expressing constitutively active PKCι in the colon are highly susceptible to carcinogen-induced colon carcinogenesis, whereas mice expressing kinase-deficient PKCι (kdPKCι) are resistant to both carcinogen- and oncogenic Ras-mediated carcinogenesis. Expression of kdPKCι in Ras-transformed rat intestinal epithelial cells blocks oncogenic Ras-mediated activation of Rac1, cellular invasion, and anchorage-independent growth. Constitutively active Rac1 (RacV12) restores invasiveness and anchorage-independent growth in Ras-transformed rat intestinal epithelial cells expressing kdPKCι. Our data demonstrate that PKCι is required for oncogenic Ras- and carcinogen-mediated colon carcinogenesis in vivo and define a procarcinogenic signaling axis consisting of Ras, PKCι, and Rac1.
We recently showed that atypical protein kinase CI (PKCI) is required for transformed growth of human non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells by activating Rac1. Genetic disruption of PKCI signaling blocks Rac1 activity and transformed growth, indicating that PKCI is a viable target for development of novel therapeutics for NSCLC. Here, we designed and implemented a novel fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based assay to identify inhibitors of oncogenic PKCI signaling. This assay was used to identify compounds that disrupt the interaction between PKCI and its downstream effector Par6, which links PKCI to Rac1. We identified aurothioglucose (ATG), a gold compound used clinically to treat rheumatoid arthritis, and the related compound, aurothiomalate (ATM), as potent inhibitors of PKCI-Par6 interactions in vitro (IC 50 f1 Mmol/L). ATG blocks PKCIdependent signaling to Rac1 and inhibits transformed growth of NSCLC cells. ATG-mediated inhibition of transformation is relieved by expression of constitutively active Rac1, consistent with a mechanism at the level of the interaction between PKCI and Par6. ATG inhibits A549 cell tumor growth in nude mice, showing efficacy against NSCLC in a relevant preclinical model. Our data show the utility of targeting protein-protein interactions involving PKCI for antitumor drug development and provide proof of concept that chemical disruption of PKCI signaling can be an effective treatment for NSCLC. ATG and ATM will be useful reagents for studying PKCI function in transformation and represent promising new agents for the clinical treatment of NSCLC. (Cancer Res 2006; 66(3): 1767-74)
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