There has been substantial interest in mindfulness as an approach to reduce cognitive vulnerability to stress and emotional distress in recent years. However, thus far mindfulness has not been defined operationally. This paper describes the results of recent meetings held to establish a consensus on mindfulness and to develop conjointly a testable operational definition. We propose a two-component model of mindfulness and specify each component in terms of specific behaviors, experiential manifestations, and implicated psychological processes.We then address issues regarding temporal stability and situational specificity and speculate on the conceptual and operational distinctiveness of mindfulness. We conclude this paper by discussing implications for instrument development and briefly describing our own approach to measurement.

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The authors examined the effects of divided attention (DA) at encoding and retrieval in free recall, cued recall, and recognition memory in 4 experiments. Lists of words or word pairs were presented auditorily and recalled orally; the secondary task was a visual continuous reaction-time (RT) task with manual responses. At encoding, DA was associated with large reductions in memory performance, but small increases in RT; trade-offs between memory and RT were under conscious control. In contrast, DA at retrieval resulted in small or no reductions in memory, but in comparatively larger increases in RT, especially in free recall. Memory performance was sensitive to changes in task emphasis at encoding but not at retrieval. The results are discussed in terms of controlled and automatic processes and speculatively linked to underlying neuropsychological mechanisms.The main purpose of this article is to examine the similarities and differences between encoding and retrieval processes in human memory. At first it seems that the two sets of processes are very similar. This position follows from Tulving's encoding specificity principle, Kolers's views on repetition of operations, and the concept of transfer-appropriate processing. In the same vein, Craik (1983) has suggested that encoding processes are essentially those involved in the perception and comprehension of events, and that retrieval processes represent an attempt to recapitulate these initial processes. In addition, evidence from neuropsychology and neuroscience suggests that the pathways involved in retrieval overlap substantially with those involved in perception and storage of the same type of information.If encoding and retrieval processes are indeed similar, experimental manipulations that affect one set of processes may be sent via Internet to craik@psych.utoronto.ca.should have a similar effect on the other set. However, one apparent exception to this proposition comes from studies of divided attention (DA). Baddeley, Lewis, Eldridge, and Thomson (1984) confirmed previous findings that the performance of a concurrent task during encoding reduced later memory performance, but they also found that dividing attention in the same way during retrieval had virtually no effect on memory performance. This surprising result suggests that retrieval processes are substantially automatic. Unlike encoding processes that place a heavy demand on attentional resources, it appears from Baddeley et al.'s findings that retrieval can proceed without such resources.Four experiments were conducted to explore these issues. Lists of words or word pairs were studied and retrieved either under full attention or while participants carried out a concurrent continuous reaction-time (CRT) task. When attention was divided at encoding, memory performance dropped substantially, but concurrent reaction time (RT) was slowed by a relatively small amount. In contrast, DA at retrieval resulted in comparatively slight drops in memory (none in the case of recognition) but a large increase in co...

In this study, the authors both developed and validated a self-report mindfulness measure, the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS). In Study 1, participants were individuals with and without meditation experience. Results showed good internal consistency and two factors, Curiosity and Decentering. Most of the expected relationships with other constructs were as expected. The TMS scores increased with increasing mindfulness meditation experience. In Study 2, criterion and incremental validity of the TMS were investigated on a group of individuals participating in 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction programs. Results showed that TMS scores increased following treatment, and Decentering scores predicted improvements in clinical outcome. Thus, the TMS is a promising measure of the mindfulness state with good psychometric properties and predictive of treatment outcome.