Questions What are the main vegetation types of forest and shrubland vegetation at the alliance level in Mediterranean Turkey? What is their syntaxonomical position? Can we integrate them into the European vegetation classification system? Which environmental factors are the main drivers of the floristic differentiation of vegetation types? Location Southern and western Turkey. Methods We collected 4,717 vegetation plots of forest and shrubland vegetation in Mediterranean Turkey and performed an unsupervised classification of this data set. We described vegetation types based on the classification results, expert knowledge and information from the literature. We defined diagnostic species and prepared distribution maps for each vegetation type. To support the interpretation of the vegetation types, we determined the most important environmental variables using canonical correspondence analysis. Results The studied vegetation was divided into 21 types related to three vegetation belts: (a) thermo‐ and meso‐mediterranean, comprising coniferous (Pinus brutia, Pinus pinea) and sclerophyllous forests, as well as macchia, garrigue and phrygana; (b) supra‐mediterranean, comprising Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana forests, thermophilous deciduous forests dominated by various oak species and Ostrya carpinifolia, and forests dominated by temperate species such as Fagus orientalis; and (c) oro‐mediterranean, comprising forests and shrublands dominated by Abies cilicica, Cedrus libani, Juniperus excelsa and Juniperus communis subsp. nana. Elevation was identified as the main environmental driver of the vegetation pattern. Among climatic variables, the most important are the mean temperatures (annual and of driest, coldest, and warmest quarters), minimum temperature of winter, precipitation of warmest and driest quarters and precipitation seasonality. These factors indicate the decreasing effect of the Mediterranean climate with increasing elevation. Conclusions The vegetation of Mediterranean Turkey is arranged along climatic gradients depending on elevation and the distance from the Mediterranean Sea. Most vegetation types in this area correspond to the syntaxa accepted in EuroVegChecklist, while others were described as new.
Floristic differentiation of the oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forests in Turkey and Bulgaria was investigated and the role of geographical and topographical factors in this differentiation was assessed. After geographical and ecological stratification of the available 922 relevés, 288 remained. Classification, by applying cluster analysis, resulted in seven vegetation units defined by species composition which represent the geographical and ecological variation of Fagus orientalis forests. DCA ordination was applied to these units by passively projecting their chorological structure, as supplementary variables. For more detailed interpretation of vegetation types with similar geographic distribution patterns, PCA was applied by passively projecting the chorological elements, life-forms and topographical factors as supplementary variables. Seven vegetation units representing the geographical and ecological variety of Fagus orientalis forests were described. Four vegetation units represent the core area of Fagus orientalis distribution on the western and middle coast of the Black Sea region (Euxine region); the remaining three types represent the distribution in the eastern Black Sea region (Colchic region), the distribution in western and southern Anatolia under the influence of the Mediterranean climate and the distribution in the transitional zone from the Euxine region to the continental parts of Inner Anatolia, respectively. The four vegetation types in Euxine region reflect the decreasing effect of Black Sea towards Inner Anatolia, as well as altitudinal differences, except the forest type representing forests on calcareous sites. The other three vegetation units represent ravine, lowland to montane and altimontane forests in Euxine region. Fagus orientalis forests could be distinguished by their floristic composition, their chorological elements and life-forms spectra, which reflect a geographical and ecological gradients.
In the present work, chemical compositions of essential oil and methanol extract of endemic Cota fulvida (Grierson) Holub were investigated as well as their antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory and antimelanogenesis potent. The phytochemical analyses have been performed with GC-MS/FID and LC-MS/MS techniques. The essential oil was characterized with hexadecanoic acid (25.6 %), camphor (6.1 %), caryophyllene oxide (5.3 %), 1,8-cineole (4.9 %) and humulene epoxide (3.9 %). In the extract, phenolic acids, phenylpropanoid dimer and flavonoids were detected. The major constituents of the extracts were found to be 5-feruloylquinic acid, caftaric acid, 3,5-Odicafeoylquinic acid and quercetin rutinoside. The antioxidant activities of the oil and extract were evaluated through scavenging of free radicals, inhibition of linoleic acid peroxidation and superoxide anion radical (O 2-) generated by xanthine -xanthine oxidase (XO) system. The extract showed free radical scavenging activity (IC50 0.131 mg/mL), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (1.33 mM) and inhibited (Inh. 36.3 %) peroxidation of lipids. The oil and extract demonstrated significant hypoglycemic activity via inhibition of porcine pancreatic -amylase. The antiinflammatory effects of the oil and extract via inhibition of 5-LOX enzyme were found as 53.7 % and 23.9 %, respectively. The extract demonstrated moderate inhibitory effect (23.3 %) on oxidation of L-DOPA via inhibition of tyrosinase enzyme.
Colour evolution and colour changes were analyzed from small specimens of three heat treated wood species using the CIE L*a*b* colour space. Upon heat exposure, the wood substance became darker of species; this was accompanied by a steady reduction in lightness. As treatment conditions (e.g., time and temperature) increase, various shades of yellow were favoured for the surface of red-bud maple wood (Db ¼ 1.22-9.79). For European hophornbeam wood, increased times at elevated temperatures make a blue (2b) colour the better choice. The total colour difference (DE) of the surfaces of wood substrates appear to be well correlated with the treatment temperature and time. The FTIR spectra suggest that the level of modification was insufficient for removing the major cell wall constituents of the wood substrates. All heat-treated samples showed much less stability against colour difference in outdoor conditions. For red-bud maple, the greatest improvement was achieved for samples that were treated at 1508C for 2 h (DE ¼ 3.12). However, heat-treated oak wood had much less stability of colour difference for treatment conditions of 1508C for 10 h.
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