Retroviruses undergo a high frequency of genetic alterations during the process of copying their RNA genomes. However, little is known about the replication fidelity of other elements that transpose via reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate. The complete sequence of 29 independently integrated copies of the yeast retrotransposon Tyl (173,043 nt) was determined, and the mutation rate during a single cycle of replication was calculated. The observed base substitution rate of 2.5 x 10-5 bp per replication cycle suggests that this intracellular element can mutate as rapidly as retroviruses. The pattern and distribution of errors in the Tyl genome is nonrandom and provides clues to potential in vivo molecular mechanisms of reverse transcriptase-mediated error generation, including heterogeneous RNase H cleavage of Tyl RNA, addition of terminal nontemplated bases, and transient dislocation and realignment of primer-templates.Overall, analysis of errors generated during Tyl replication underscores the utility of a genetically tractable model system for the study of reverse transcriptase fidelity.Reverse transcription is a notoriously error-prone process. Mutations occurring during retroviral replication include simple base substitutions and frameshifts as well as complex deletions, deletions with insertions, and hypermutations (1-6).This low fidelity of replication is presumed to be the basis for the rapid genome evolution of retroviruses as well as for the ability of human immunodeficiency virus to evade its host immune system and develop drug resistance. Biochemical studies using purified retroviral reverse transcriptases (RTs) have elucidated multiple potential error-generating mechanisms, including extension past mismatched bases (7-11), poor discrimination of dNTPs (12-14), lack of associated 3' to 5' exonuclease activities (9, 15), slippage of primer-templates (16,17), and addition of nontemplated bases at the ends of template strands (18,19).Retroviruses are the most highly visible members of a ubiquitous and varied confederation of genetic elements linked by their capacity to replicate by reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate (20,21). While recent biochemical analyses have revealed novel priming mechanisms associated with several nonretroviral , no study has addressed the rate or spectrum of errors occurring during a cycle of nonretroviral retrotransposition. Such studies are impeded by the polymorphic nature of multicopy elements in the genome (27, 28), their variable expression, and the difficulty of identifying events resulting from single rounds of replication. However, these problems could be obviated using a model system where transposition is limited to a single, marked element, where expression of the multiple endogenous copies is repressed, and where transposition events are trapped and prevented from secondary replication. The retrotransposon Tyl, from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, provides just such a system.Tyl is one of the most intensively studied retrotransposons. Its ...
The 1769 Stratford Jubilee, where Garrick celebrated Shakespeare as ‘the god of our idolatry’, is generally recognized as the first public manifestation of Bardolatry, the dramatist’s elevation to the status of a creative divinity being associated with Coleridge’s criticism. This article rather suggests that the construction of Shakespeare as an icon was a gradual process generated by the contradictions inherent to the reception of his plays by neoclassicism. It argues that the main catalyst in this paradoxical transfiguration of a playwright into a demigod was the instability of neoclassical concepts of nature and imitation when confronted with Shakespeare’s characters.
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