Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive neuronal loss. AD is associated with aberrant processing of the amyloid precursor protein, which leads to the deposition of amyloid-β plaques within the brain. Together with plaques deposition, the hyperphosphorylation of the microtubules associated protein tau and the formation of intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles are a typical neuropathological feature in AD brains. Cellular dysfunctions involving specific subcellular compartments, such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER), are emerging as crucial players in the pathogenesis of AD, as well as increased oxidative stress and dysregulation of calcium homeostasis. Specifically, dysregulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis has been suggested as a common proximal cause of neural dysfunction in AD. Aberrant calcium signaling has been considered a phenomenon mainly related to the dysfunction of intracellular calcium stores, which can occur in both neuronal and nonneuronal cells. This review reports the most recent findings on cellular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of AD, with main focus on the control of calcium homeostasis at both cytosolic and mitochondrial level.
In brain ischemia, reduction in oxygen and substrates affects mitochondrial respiratory chain and aerobic metabolism, culminating in ATP production impairment, ionic imbalance, and cell death. The restoration of blood flow and reoxygenation are frequently associated with exacerbation of tissue injury, giving rise to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. In this setting, the imbalance of brain bioenergetics induces important metabolic adaptations, including utilization of alternative energy sources, such as glutamate. Although glutamate has long been considered as a neurotoxin, it can also be used as intermediary metabolite for ATP synthesis, and both the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) and the Na+-dependent excitatory amino-acid transporters (EAATs) are essential in this pathway. Here we analyzed the role of NCX in the potential of glutamate to improve metabolism and survival of neuronal cells subjected to hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). In SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells differentiated into a neuron-like state, H/R produced a significant cell damage, a decrease in ATP cellular content, and intracellular Ca2+ alterations. Exposure to glutamate at the onset of the reoxygenation phase attenuated H/R-induced cell damage and evoked a significant raise in intracellular ATP levels. Furthermore, we found that in H/R cells NCX reverse-mode activity was reduced, and that glutamate limited such reduction. All the effects induced by glutamate supplementation were lost when cells were transfected with small interfering RNA against NCX1 and EAAT3, suggesting the need of a specific functional interplay between these proteins for glutamate-induced protection. Collectively, our results revealed the potential beneficial effect of glutamate in an in vitro model of H/R injury and focused on the essential role exerted by NCX1. Although preliminary, these findings could be a starting point to further investigate in in vivo systems such protective effect in ischemic settings, shedding a new light on the classical view of glutamate as detrimental factor.
In a basic study at the Andrology Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy, we evaluated the pattern of mRNA endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression in human blood leucocytes isolated from normozoospermic fertile and asthenozoospermic infertile men to elucidate any pathogenic involvement in sperm cell motility. Forty infertile men with idiopathic asthenozoospermia and 45 normozoospermic fertile donors, age-matched, were included. Semen parameters were evaluated, and expression analysis of mRNA was performed in human leucocytes using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Sperm volume, count, motility and morphology were determined, and eNOS expression and Western blotting analyses were performed. A positive correlation was observed between the concentrations of NO and the percentage of immotile spermatozoa. The mRNA of eNOS was more expressed in peripheral blood leucocytes isolated from asthenozoospermic infertile men versus those of fertile normozoospermic men (7.46 ± 0.38 versus 7.06 ± 0.56, P = 0.0355). A significant up-regulation of eNOS gene in peripheral blood leucocytes was 1.52-fold higher than that of fertile donors. It is concluded that eNOS expression and activity are enhanced in blood leucocytes in men with idiopathic asthenozoospermia.
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