The use of organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) as flame retardants and plasticizers has increased due to the ban on common polybrominated diphenyl ether mixtures. However, only limited information on PFR contamination is available so far from Southeast Asia. In the present study, residual levels of PFRs in house dust and exposure through dust ingestion were investigated in the Philippines. House dust samples (n = 37) were collected from Malate (residential area) and Payatas (municipal dumping area) in the Philippines and analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Among the targeted seven PFRs, triphenyl phosphate (TPP) was the predominant compound. Median levels of ΣPFRs in Malate (530 ng/g) were two times higher (p < 0.05) than in Payatas (240 ng/g). The estimated daily intake of PFRs in the Philippines (of areas studied) via house dust ingestion was below the guideline values. House dust may be an important contributor in the overall exposure of humans to TPP even when considering dietary sources. To our knowledge, this is a first report on PFR contamination in house dust from developing country. PFRs were ubiquitously detected in the home environments in the Philippines. Although estimated exposure levels through dust ingestion were below the guideline, it was suggested that toddlers are at higher risk. Therefore, further investigations to understand the behavior of PFRs in house and other microenvironments and overall exposure pathways for the country's populace to PFRs are necessary.
. In our epidemiological investigations of the gingivitis in school children in the past few years, it has been our experience that a certain subjective judgment is bound to occur in the assessment of findings by different individuals.The present survey was undertaken with the thought that the elucidation of thses individual differences would put our data in better perspective and, at the same time, would provide a useful tool for comparing our own data with others.Five examiners were instructed to work on a total of 81 school children without any previous training to bring their respective PMA findings into standardized ratings. The examiners were given a simple briefing at a meeting and left to their own devices. The result was that there was seen a wide degree of individual differences; some found a larger incidence of PMA in the anterior region, while others found the upper jaw more frequent than the lower.It was definitely revealed that data collected by a more experienced examiner gave more stable findings than the inexperienced.It is concluded that, in comparing our data with others, it is necessary that sufficient care be given to the degree of individual differences on the part of the examiners.
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