No abstract

Ecology refers to the study of natural systems, emphasizing the interdependence of one element in a system upon every other element. Darwin's and Wallace's theories of natural selection were originators of ecological theories. Darwin referred to the "web of life," indicating that in the struggle for existence every species must adapt to both the demands of the physical environment and every other species. Thus, as one species changed the others changed and produced systems in which each island had different life forms. In like manner, human ecology has a wholistic framework. Ecologists argue than one cannot understand one element in nature without considering its surroundings.According to Klausner (1971), "Adaptation is the most important dynamic concept in human ecology [p. 271." It is with regard to this quality that the writings of such diverse individuals as Webber, Darwin, Skinner, and many others are seen as containing a unifying element and becoming integrated into theories of human ecology. We will consider the ecology of aging in terms of the adaptation of man to his environment and his alteration of the environment as part of the process of human adaptation. The aging process itself can be seen as one of continual adaptation: adaptation both to the external M. Powell Lawton received his PhD in clinical psychology from Columbia University in 1952. He has worked in clinical practice and clinical research for the Veterans Administration and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He is presently Director of Behavioral Research at the Philadelphia Geriatric Center. His major research interests are in social gerontology and ecological psychology. He is Secretary of the Gerontological Society, Past-President of the Division on Adult Development and Aging of the American Psychological Association, and Associate Editor for Social Gerontology for the Journal of Gerontology.

The 22-item Philadelphia Geriatric Center (PGC) Morale Scale was subjected to a series of principal component analyses utilizing different item pools and rotating differing numbers of factors. Subjects were 1086 tenants of federally-assisted housing for the elderly and older people living in the community. Results were compared with analyses of the PGC Scale done by Morris and Sherwood. Consideration of factors defined by the analyses suggested three consistently reproduced factors: Agitation, Attitude Toward Own Aging, and Lonely Dissatisfaction, utilizing 17 of the original items. These results were compared with other multi-dimensional measures of morale: the Bradburn Affect Balance Scale, and morale scales reported by Pierce and Clark, and Schooler. In addition to the dimensions derived from the current study related domains of self-rated health, social accessibility, generalized attitude toward aging, and positive affect were suggested as worthy of further exploration as dimensions of morale.

An assessment instrument capable of measuring the wellbeing of the aged in a number of significant domains is described. This Philadelphia Geriatric Center Multilevel Assessment Instrument (MAI) systematically assesses behavioral competence in the domains of health, activities of daily living, cognition, time use, and social interaction and in the sectors of psychological wellbeing and perceived environmental quality. Determination of the psychometric qualities of measures of different length in each of these domains and sectors was made. The performance of 590 older people in groups composed of independent community residents, in-home services clients, and people awaiting admission to an institution was determined. The MAI is seen as useful for both research and for assessment in service-giving situations.

Groups of spouse (N = 285) and adult child (N = 244) caregivers of elderly parents suffering from Alzheimer's disease were interviewed regarding their caregiving behaviors, evaluations of caregiving, and general psychological well-being. A model of caregiving dynamics where the objective stressor, caregiver resources, and subjective appraisal of caregiving (operationalized as caregiving satisfaction and burden) were studied as they affected both positive affect and depression was tested. For spouses, caregiving satisfaction was not related to aspects of the stressor, but was a significant determinant of positive affect. Among adult children, high levels of caregiving behavior resulted in both greater caregiving satisfaction and burden. Burden, in turn, was related to depression in both groups but, among adult child caregivers, positive affect was not affected by caregiving satisfaction. Limited support was found for the hypothesis that the positive and negative aspects of caregiving contributed to analogous aspects of generalized psychological well-being but not to the opposite-valence outcomes.