Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antarctica: Cadophora antarctica from soil. Australia: Alfaria dandenongensis on Cyperaceae, Amphosoma persooniae on Persoonia sp., Anungitea nullicana on Eucalyptus sp., Bagadiella eucalypti on Eucalyptus globulus, Castanediella eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus sp., Cercospora dianellicola on Dianella sp., Cladoriella kinglakensis on Eucalyptus regnans, Cladoriella xanthorrhoeae (incl. Cladoriellaceae fam. nov. and Cladoriellales ord. nov.) on Xanthorrhoea sp., Cochlearomyces eucalypti (incl. Cochlearomyces gen. nov. and Cochlearomycetaceae fam. nov.) on Eucalyptus obliqua, Codinaea lambertiae on Lambertia formosa, Diaporthe obtusifoliae on Acacia obtusifolia, Didymella acaciae on Acacia melanoxylon, Dothidea eucalypti on Eucalyptus dalrympleana, Fitzroyomyces cyperi (incl. Fitzroyomyces gen. nov.) on Cyperaceae, Murramarangomyces corymbiae (incl. Murramarangomyces gen. nov., Murramarangomycetaceae fam. nov. and Murramarangomycetales ord. nov.) on Corymbia maculata, Neoanungitea eucalypti (incl. Neoanungitea gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus obliqua, Neoconiothyrium persooniae (incl. Neoconiothyrium gen. nov.) on Persoonia laurina subsp. laurina, Neocrinula lambertiae (incl. Neocrinulaceae fam. nov.) on Lambertia sp., Ochroconis podocarpi on Podocarpus grayae, Paraphysalospora eucalypti (incl. Paraphysalospora gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus sieberi, Pararamichloridium livistonae (incl. Pararamichloridium gen. nov., Pararamichloridiaceae fam. nov. and Pararamichloridiales ord. nov.) on Livistona sp., Pestalotiopsis dianellae on Dianella sp., Phaeosphaeria gahniae on Gahnia aspera, Phlogicylindrium tereticornis on Eucalyptus tereticornis, Pleopassalora acaciae on Acacia obliquinervia, Pseudodactylaria xanthorrhoeae (incl. Pseudodactylaria gen. nov., Pseudodactylariaceae fam. nov. and Pseudodactylariales ord. nov.) on Xanthorrhoea sp., Pseudosporidesmium lambertiae (incl. Pseudosporidesmiaceae fam. nov.) on Lambertia formosa, Saccharata acaciae on Acacia sp., Saccharata epacridis on Epacris sp., Saccharata hakeigena on Hakea sericea, Seiridium persooniae on Persoonia sp., Semifissispora tooloomensis on Eucalyptus dunnii, Stagonospora lomandrae on Lomandra longifolia, Stagonospora victoriana on Poaceae, Subramaniomyces podocarpi on Podocarpus elatus, Sympoventuria melaleucae on Melaleuca sp., Sympoventuria regnans on Eucalyptus regnans, Trichomerium eucalypti on Eucalyptus tereticornis, Vermiculariopsiella eucalypticola on Eucalyptus dalrympleana, Verrucoconiothyrium acaciae on Acacia falciformis, Xenopassalora petrophiles (incl. Xenopassalora gen. nov.) on Petrophile sp., Zasmidium dasypogonis on Dasypogon sp., Zasmidium gahniicola on Gahnia sieberiana. Brazil: Achaetomium lippiae on Lippia gracilis, Cyathus isometricus on decaying wood, Geastrum caririense on soil, Lycoperdon demoulinii (incl. Lycoperdon subg. Arenicola) on soil, Megatomentella cristata (incl. Megatomentella gen. nov.) on unidentified plant, Mutinus verrucosus on soil, Par...

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antarctica , Apenidiella antarctica from permafrost, Cladosporium fildesense fromanunidentifiedmarinesponge. Argentina , Geastrum wrightii onhumusinmixedforest. Australia , Golovinomyces glandulariae on Glandularia aristigera, Neoanungitea eucalyptorum on leaves of Eucalyptus grandis, Teratosphaeria corymbiicola on leaves of Corymbia ficifolia, Xylaria eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus radiata. Brazil, Bovista psammophila on soil, Fusarium awaxy on rotten stalks of Zea mays, Geastrum lanuginosum on leaf litter covered soil, Hermetothecium mikaniae-micranthae (incl. Hermetothecium gen. nov.)on Mikania micrantha, Penicillium reconvexovelosoi in soil, Stagonosporopsis vannaccii from pod of Glycine max. British Virgin Isles , Lactifluus guanensis onsoil. Canada , Sorocybe oblongispora on resin of Picea rubens. Chile, Colletotrichum roseum on leaves of Lapageria rosea. China, Setophoma caverna fromcarbonatiteinKarstcave. Colombia , Lareunionomyces eucalypticola on leaves of Eucalyptus grandis. Costa Rica, Psathyrella pivae onwood. Cyprus , Clavulina iris oncalcareoussubstrate. France , Chromosera ambigua and Clavulina iris var. occidentalis onsoil. French West Indies , Helminthosphaeria hispidissima ondeadwood. Guatemala , Talaromyces guatemalensis insoil. Malaysia , Neotracylla pini (incl. Tracyllales ord. nov. and Neotra- cylla gen. nov.)and Vermiculariopsiella pini on needles of Pinus tecunumanii. New Zealand, Neoconiothyrium viticola on stems of Vitis vinifera, Parafenestella pittospori on Pittosporum tenuifolium, Pilidium novae-zelandiae on Phoenix sp. Pakistan , Russula quercus-floribundae onforestfloor. Portugal , Trichoderma aestuarinum from salinewater. Russia , Pluteus liliputianus on fallen branch of deciduous tree, Pluteus spurius on decaying deciduouswoodorsoil. South Africa , Alloconiothyrium encephalarti, Phyllosticta encephalarticola and Neothyrostroma encephalarti (incl. Neothyrostroma gen. nov.)onleavesof Encephalartos sp., Chalara eucalypticola on leaf spots of Eucalyptus grandis× urophylla, Clypeosphaeria oleae on leaves of Olea capensis, Cylindrocladiella postalofficium on leaf litter of Sideroxylon inerme , Cylindromonium eugeniicola (incl. Cylindromonium gen. nov.)onleaflitterof Eugenia capensis , Cyphellophora goniomatis on leaves of Gonioma kamassi , Nothodactylaria nephrolepidis (incl. Nothodactylaria gen. nov. and Nothodactylariaceae fam. nov.)onleavesof Nephrolepis exaltata , Falcocladium eucalypti and Gyrothrix eucalypti on leaves of Eucalyptus sp., Gyrothrix oleae on leaves of Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa , Harzia metro sideri on leaf litter of Metrosideros sp., Hippopotamyces phragmitis (incl. Hippopota- myces gen. nov.)onleavesof Phragmites australis , Lectera philenopterae on Philenoptera violacea , Leptosillia mayteni on leaves of Maytenus heterophylla , Lithohypha aloicola and Neoplatysporoides aloes on leaves of Aloe sp., Millesimomyces rhoicissi (incl. Millesimomyces gen. nov.) on leaves of Rhoicissus digitata , Neodevriesia strelitziicola on leaf litter of Strelitzia nicolai , Neokirramyces syzygii (incl. Neokirramyces gen. nov.)onleafspotsof

Nomenclatural type definitions are one of the most important concepts in biological nomenclature. Being physical objects that can be re-studied by other researchers, types permanently link taxonomy (an artificial agreement to classify biological diversity) with nomenclature (an artificial agreement to name biological diversity). Two proposals to amend the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), allowing DNA sequences alone (of any region and extent) to serve as types of taxon names for voucherless fungi (mainly putative taxa from environmental DNA sequences), have been submitted to be voted on at the 11th International Mycological Congress (Puerto Rico, July 2018). We consider various genetic processes affecting the distribution of alleles among taxa and find that alleles may not consistently and uniquely represent the species within which they are contained. Should the proposals be accepted, the meaning of nomenclatural types would change in a fundamental way from physical objects as sources of data to the data themselves. Such changes are conducive to irreproducible science, the potential typification on artefactual data, and massive creation of names with low information content, ultimately causing nomenclatural instability and unnecessary work for future researchers that would stall future explorations of fungal diversity. We conclude that the acceptance of DNA sequences alone as types of names of taxa, under the terms used in the current proposals, is unnecessary and would not solve the problem of naming putative taxa known only from DNA sequences in a scientifically defensible way. As an alternative, we highlight the use of formulas for naming putative taxa (candidate taxa) that do not require any modification of the ICN.

The ectomycorrhizal genus Lactifluus is known to contain many species complexes, consisting of morphologically very similar species, which can be considered cryptic or pseudocryptic. In this paper, a thorough molecular study is performed of the clade around Lactifluus deceptivus (originally described by Peck from North America) or the deceptive milkcaps. Even though most collections were identified as L. deceptivus, the clade is shown to contain at least 15 species, distributed across Asia and America, indicating that the L. deceptivus clade represents a species complex. These species are morphologically very similar and are characterized by a tomentose pileus with thinwalled hyphae and a velvety stipe with thick-walled hyphae. An ITS1 sequence was obtained through Illumina sequencing for the lectotype of L. deceptivus, dating from 1885, revealing which clade represents the true L. deceptivus. In addition, it is shown that three other described species also belong to the L. deceptivus clade: L. arcuatus, L. caeruleitinctus and L. mordax, and molecularly confirmed that L. tomentoso-marginatus represents a synonym of L. deceptivus. Furthermore, two new Neotropical species are described: Lactifluus hallingii and L. domingensis.

The (re)discovery of ectomycorrhizal symbioses in Neotropical ecosystems sketched in Florian opolis VIII th Brazilian Mycological Congress, held in Florian opolis, Brazil, October 2016The VIII th Brazilian Mycological Congress, held in Florian opolis (Brazil) in October 2016, was organized by the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina and brought together more than 1000 scientists of 20 nationalities, which illustrates the dynamism of South American mycology, in many fields. One of the major takehome messages, amongst many research talks and posters, was the rising interest in the ectomycorrhizal (EM) symbiosis, which was addressed by both a symposium and a 3-day workshop 'To the roots of trees: growing awareness of ectomycorrhizal symbioses in the Neotropics'. Talks on this symbiosis were given by taxonomists and ecologists, and focused on the Neotropics, the tropical realm that extends from the central plateau of Mexico and which includes South America. The inventories of ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF), observations of EM roots, and metabarcoding studies presented revealed a hitherto unsuspected abundance of the EM symbiosis to all participants, including a number of South-American students. This meeting provided great opportunities to share points of view on the historical reasons behind gaps in knowledge on EMF associations in neotropical low-elevation areas. The meeting also highlighted recent discoveries and forthcoming challenges, based on three complementary approaches: studies on fruitbodies, EM roots, and the metabarcoding of soil samples.