Plants have the ability to synthesize almost unlimited number of substances. In many cases, these chemicals serve in plant defense mechanisms against microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Generally, any part of the plant may contain the various active ingredients. Among the plant, active compounds are saponins, which are traditionally used as natural detergents. The name 'saponin' comes from the Latin word 'sapo,' which means 'soap' as saponins show the unique properties of foaming and emulsifying agents. Steroidal and triterpenoid saponins can be used in many industrial applications, from the preparation of steroid hormones in the pharmaceutical industry to utilization as food additives that exploit their non-ionic surfactant properties. Saponins also exhibit different biological activities. This chapter has been prepared by participants of the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action-Research and Innovation Staff Exchange (RISE) in the framework of the proposal 'ECOSAPONIN.' Interactions between the participants, including chemists, physicists, technologists, microbiologists and botanists from four countries, will contribute to the development of collaborative ties and further promote research and development in the area of saponins in Europe and China. Although this chapter cannot provide a comprehensive account of the state of knowledge regarding plant saponins, we hope that it will help make saponins the focus of ongoing international cooperation.

A b s t r a c t. The aim of this study was to acquire data on the physical properties and compression loading behaviour of seed of six corn hybrid varieties. The mean values of length, width, thickness, geometric diameter, surface area, porosity, single kernel mass, sphericity, bulk and true density, 1 000 kernel mass and coefficient of friction were studied at single level of corn seed moisture content. The calculated secant modulus of elasticity during compressive loading for dent corn was 0.995 times that of the semi-flint type; there were no significant differences in the value of this mechanical property between semi-flint and dent corn varieties. The linear model showed a decreasing tendency of secant modulus of elasticity for all hybrids as the moisture content of seeds increased.K e y w o r d s: corn, physical properties, secant modulus of elasticity INTRODUCTIONThe importance of corn processing industries is increasing. Recent concepts in corn marketing emphasise the identification of the specific, rigorous quality needs of individual users, and there is considerable interest in grain quality as an end-use value. Parameters useful in the evaluation and recognition of such specific values include, among others, the physical properties of corn kernels. These properties include the three perpendicular dimensions, which affect cleaning and grading processing, the kernel surface, which affects drying, sphericity and thousand kernels mass, which affect packaging of seed, bulk density (affecting storage capacity), true density (affecting vehicle load), porosity (aeration possibility, drying), coefficient of static friction (moving on inclined plane) and compression loading behaviour, which affects milling, extruding and flake preparation. Previous studies have described the physical properties of corn kernels. Coskun et al. (2006) determined sweet corn seed properties as a function of moisture content, while Karababa (2006) reported similar results on popcorn kernels; sweet corn kernel properties were reported by Karababa and Coskuner (2007) and those of dent corn by Esref and Nazmi (2007). The quality of corn kernels is not evaluated solely by the physical traits mentioned above. The behaviour of the corn kernel during compressive loading is one of its textual properties. The processing of corn for food and feed requires various types of mechanical treatment that depend on external forces. The main component of corn kernels is starch granules; these have a complex hierarchical structure consisting of polysaccharide macromolecules that are partially arranged in ordered conformations as single and double helices and entangled to form supra-and sub-molecular structures Gaytan-Martinez et al. (2006). Proteins form a matrix surrounding and embedding the starch granules. The endosperm of corn, which is horny and floury, is a complex mixture of starch granules and protein. The proportion of horny and floury endosperm in the kernel differs in different types of corn, the general classes of which are flint corn, dent ...

The width and thickness of the analyzed kernels were small compared with the length, and bulk densities were also moderate. The yield point force values of the two hard varieties were 2.2 times higher than the values of the soft variety, at a moisture content of 0.136 kg kg(-1) for Simonida, 0.133 kg kg(-1) for Dragana and 0.141 kg kg(-1) for NS 40S.

Two methods for estimation of the surface area and volume of a Williams pear quarter provides the focus of this study. The heat energy needed for the drying process depends, in part, on the surface area. The first method involved multiplying the number of pears by the average surface area or volume. The second method involved calculating the surface area and volume of each pear quarter based on the pear length only, as described in the proposed algorithm. It was based on significant correlation between pear length and points on the upper bounder of the pear as well as on integral calculus.

The physical properties and compressive loading of six domestic sunflower hybrids were studied. The mean values of length, width, thickness, geometric diameter, surface area, porosity, single kernel mass, sphericity, bulk and true density, 1000-kernel weight and coefficient of friction were measured at a single level of moisture content. The results for the sunflower seeds showed that the length, width, thickness and geometric diameter dimensions ranged from 9.31-11.52 mm, 4.71-5.92 mm, 2.95-4.87 mm and 5.12-6.31 mm, respectively. The mean sphericity, porosity, static coefficient of friction, bulk and true density ranged from 0.313-0.550, 0.313-0.363, 0.211-0.237, 330.10-449.86 and 502.74-701.21 kg m -3 , respectively. The objective of this study was to evaluate and compare the behavior of six domestic sunflower hybrids (Perun, Bačvanin, Krajišnik, NS-H-111, Pobednik and Šumadinac hybrids) during compressive loading considering the seed moisture content. The seeds of NS-H-111, Šumadinac, Pobednik and Krajišnik demonstrated low values of bio yield force ranging from 29.3 N to 45.2 N when seeds had a low moisture content (between 3.7 and 5.9% w.b.). The opposite occurred for the Bačvanin and Perun hybrids (60.6 N and 76.2 N, respectively) within the same seed moisture content. For all the hybrids, the machine head displacement (deformation) increased as the seed moisture content increased. The linear model shows a decreasing trend of bio yield modulus for all hybrids as the moisture content of seeds increased.