Several neotropical orchid genera have been proposed as being sexually deceptive; however, this has been carefully tested in only a few cases. The genus Telipogon has long been assumed to be pollinated by male tachinid flies during pseudocopulatory events but no detailed confirmatory reports are available. Here, we have used an array of methods to elucidate the pollination mechanism in Telipogon peruvianus. The species presents flowers that have a mean floral longevity of 33 days and that are self-compatible, although spontaneous self-pollination does not occur. The flowers attract males of four tachinid species but only the males of an undescribed Eudejeania (Eudejeania aff. browni; Tachinidae) species are specific pollinators. Males visit the flowers during the first few hours of the day and the pollination success is very high (42% in one patch) compared with other sexually deceptive species. Female-seeking males are attracted to the flowers but do not attempt copulation with the flowers, as is usually described in sexually deceptive species. Nevertheless, morphological analysis and behavioural tests have shown an imperfect mimicry between flowers and females suggesting that the attractant stimulus is not based only on visual cues, as long thought. Challenging previous conclusions, our chemical analysis has confirmed that flowers of Telipogon release volatile compounds; however, the role of these volatiles in pollinator behaviour remains to be established. Pollinator behaviour and histological analyses indicate that Telipogon flowers possess scent-producing structures throughout the corolla. Our study provides the first confirmed case of (i) a sexually deceptive species in the Onciidinae, (ii) pollination by pre-copulatory behaviour and (iii) pollination by sexual deception involving tachinid flies.
ResumenEl presente trabajo documenta la diversidad de los mamíferos de la cuenca del río Apurímac, uno de los vacíos de información más importantes del Perú, en base a una evaluación de cinco lugares de muestreo en los departamentos de Apurímac (Cconoc, Velavelayoc), Ayacucho (Yanamonte, Ccentabamba) y Cusco (Catarata). El esfuerzo de captura fue de 1280 trampas noche y 41 redes noche. Se registraron 60 especies en el área de estudio; incluyendo 15 especies bajo alguna categoría de conservación y cuatro endémicas a nivel del país. Como era de esperarse, los murciélagos y los roedores fueron los órdenes más diversos (66,7 %). La diversidad de especies en los sitios de muestreo decrece signifi cativamente con la elevación desde los puntos de muestreo más bajos (Ccentabamba y Catarata) hasta el más alto (Velavelayoc). El marsupial Monodelphis peruviana y el venado enano Mazama chunyi son primeros registros para el departamento de Ayacucho.Mazama chunyi son primeros registros para el departamento de Ayacucho. Mazama chunyi Los murciélagos Artibeus planirostris yArtibeus planirostris y Artibeus planirostris Myotis keaysi así como la nutria Myotis keaysi así como la nutria Myotis keaysi Lontra longicaudis son primeros registros para el departamento de Apurímac. La abundancia relativa presentó una correlación negativa signifi cativa con la elevación para los murciélagos pero no fue signifi cativa para los mamíferos pequeños terrestres. Las especies de Sturnira, Akodon y Thomasomys fueron las Thomasomys fueron las Thomasomys que obtuvieron una mayor abundancia relativa. Los índices de diversidad de Shannon-Wiener y Simpson mostraron también una correlación negativa signifi cativa con la elevación. Se estima que la cuenca del río Apurímac alberga al menos 97 especies de mamíferos lo que resulta de compilar nuestros resultados con publicaciones previas. Se recomienda establecer áreas de conservación en Huanipaca, Yanamonte y Catarata e incrementar el área del Santuario Histórico Machu Picchu hasta incluir la zona del complejo arqueológico Choquequirao.Palabras clave: Mamíferos, Perú, río Apurímac, diversidad, conservación, bosques montanos, VRAE. AbstractThe present work documents the diversity of mammals in the headwaters of the Apurímac river, one of the most important information gaps in Peru, based on an evaluation of fi ve sampling areas in the departments of Apurímac (Cconoc, Velavelayoc), Ayacucho (Yanamonte, Ccentabamba) and Cuzco (Catarata). Capture's effort was 1280 trap-nights and 41 mistnet-nights. Sixty species were recorded in the study area and included 15 threatened species and four species endemic to Perú. As expected, bats and rodents were the most diverse orders (66,7 %). The species diversity in the sites sampled declines signifi cantly with elevation from the lowest elevation sites (Ccentabamba and Catarata) to the highest (Velavelayoc). The marsupial Monodelphis peruviana and the Dwarf Brocket deer Mazama chunyi are fi rst records Mazama chunyi are fi rst records Mazama chunyi for the department of A...
Premise of research. In plants, evolutionary shifts from one pollinator guild to another are normally associated with coordinated changes of several floral characters. These might be floral morphology, color, and scent. On the basis of the animals' different sizes and shapes as well as their visual and olfactory sensitivities or preferences, floral visitors exert different selective pressures on flowers. Floral traits might act as floral filters, attracting pollinators or excluding unwanted flower visitors. We use the genus Salvia, in which several shifts from bee to bird pollination are known, to examine the potential role of floral color versus floral construction as floral filters.Methodology. We studied 26 bee-pollinated, 30 bird-pollinated, and 3 intermediate Salvia species. Besides documenting floral morphology and floral guides, we measured floral spectral reflectance and characterized the flowers' perception by bees.Pivotal results. The color loci of half of the bird-pollinated species (red to humans) are in the achromatic center and thus are less conspicuous to bees. All other species (mostly bluish) have significantly greater color contrast and spectral purity and can be recognized by bees and birds. Nectar guides occurred in almost all bee-pollinated species included in the study but in no bird-pollinated species. The results suggest that color might play a role as a floral filter against bees in only half of the bird-pollinated species, while mechanical bee exclusion appears to be important in all bird-pollinated species.Conclusions. Our data indicate that bees are excluded from bird-pollinated flowers mainly by floral construction. The red color and the absence of nectar guides in bird-pollinated flowers can be interpreted as adaptations for reducing nectar and pollen theft by bees via visual exclusion without losing attractiveness for birds.
Resumen La llanura amazónica peruana se caracteriza por la presencia de múltiples formaciones vegetales. Éstas cada vez reciben mayor impacto por actividades antropogénicas tales como la minería y tala. Todo esto, sumado al cambio climático global, genera desconcierto sobre el futuro de los bosques. La identificación de los niveles de almacenamiento de carbono en áreas boscosas, y específicamente en cada formación vegetal, permitiría un mejor manejo de las zonas de conservación, así como identificar las áreas potenciales que servirían para el financiamiento de la absorción de carbono y otros servicios ambientales. El presente estudio fue desarrollado en la estación Biológica del Centro de Investigación y Capacitación Río Los Amigos (CICRA). En el CICRA se identificaron tres formaciones vegetales principales, el bosque de terraza, el bosque inundable y el aguajal. Siendo los bosques de terraza los de mayor extensión y mayor cantidad de carbono acumulado. Como resultado se valorizó la vegetación presente en el CICRA, en alrededor de 11 millones de dólares americanos. El ingreso a la oferta de los bonos de carbono promovería la conservación de los bosques. Palabras clave: Bosques tropicales, Amazonia peruana, cambio climático global, conservación, GIS.
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