High demand for dogs in countries like the UK can lead to illegal intensive breeding and illegal 1 importation of puppies for the pet trade. The current study investigates the effects of intensive 2 breeding or 'puppy farming' on canine behaviour, explores new ways of predicting negative outcomes 3 and categorising dog behaviour, and probes whether various types of training or routines can mitigate 4 these behavioural outcomes. Participants completed an online self-report questionnaire, combining a 5 shortened version of the Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire (mini C-6 BARQ) , with new scales created in collaboration with the Scottish Society for the 7 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Scottish SPCA). 2,026 participants completed the questionnaire; 8 most owners had dogs from non-puppy farm backgrounds (n=1702), the rest had dogs from puppy 9 farms (n=123), or were unsure of the source of the dog (n=201). We validated the mini C-BARQ as a 10 tool for measuring dog behaviour, and explored its latent dimensions using factor analysis, extracting 11 five first-order factors and one overarching second-order factor. We also confirm the validity of three 12 of the four new scales developed with Scottish SPCA used to measure the impact of puppy farming 13 practices. Linear and logistic regressions demonstrated that dogs from puppy farms have less 14 desirable behaviours than dogs from other sources on 11 of the 14 behavioural subscales of the C-15 BARQ (for significant subscales, coefficients were between 0.1 and 0.2, and odds Ratios between 1.6 16 and 2.5). Generalized Linear Models (GLM) revealed the predictive power of two newly developed 17 scales measuring early life experience in explaining variations in dog behaviour. In a GLM 18 accounting for the dog's early life experience (and controlling for variables like breed and age), dog-19 walking significantly reduced the incidence of undesirable behaviours (p<0.001), while different 20 types of training had a significant interaction with poor early life experience in moderating canine 21 behaviour (p<0.002). Finally, dogs from puppy farms had significantly worse medical scores than 22 dogs from other breeding sources (U = 144,719, z = 7.228, p < 0.001). These results suggest that 23 puppy farming has negative impacts on dog behaviours and health, while more research is necessary 24 to fully explore how to mitigate the effects of poor early life experience. 25

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Childhood animal cruelty (CAC) is a risk for later interpersonal violence and a red flag for other forms of violence in the household, yet very few studies have spoken to children directly about their cruelty to animals. Animal Guardians (AG) is a humane education program run by the Scottish SPCA for children of age 5 to 12 years who have been cruel to animals or deemed at-risk. This research investigated how children referred to AG spoke about their experiences of animal cruelty and factors surrounding it. Research consent was obtained for 10 children (average age = 8.8 years, n = 9 males), referred concerning cruel/at-risk behavior toward their pets. The interview schedule combined techniques such as crafts, vignettes, open questions, and standardized measures. Interviews were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Content analysis suggested that referred children (a) tended to have small attachment networks which often included pets, (b) tended to interpret ambiguous situations predominately negatively, (c) tended to like animals and see them as sentient, and (d) struggled admitting to cruelty. Three main superordinate themes emerged from the IPA: (a) Bonding to animals, (b) Exposure to/normalization of violence, and (c) Signs of emotional issues/trauma. Children who were referred for animal cruelty toward their pets were from vulnerable backgrounds, often had complex backdrops to their at-risk or cruel behavior, and sometimes had trouble regulating their emotions and behaviors. Programs hoping to address CAC should be aware of these complex emotional, psychological, and behavioral factors, tailoring interventions accordingly.

Background: This study aimed to examine veterinarians' experiences of treating cases of nonaccidental injury and other forms of animal abuse and to assess their support needs and barriers to reporting cases. Methods: An online questionnaire was completed by 215 veterinarians. The survey included items on demographics and veterinary experience, experience of nonaccidental injuries during the last 12 months, case studies, perceptions of the roles of veterinarians in identifying and reporting cases, and barriers to reporting. Results: Fifty-three percent reported treating cases and 9% reported suspected cases of abuse in the last 12 months. Experience of abuse in the last 12 months did not vary in terms of veterinarians' age, sex or number of years in practice. The most commonly affected animals were dogs, cats and rabbits, and the most common forms of abuse were neglect and physical abuse. Case studies focused on physical abuse cases, but neglect cases more often resulted in death. Veterinarians showed high concern about animal abuse but varied in their confidence to intervene and perceived barriers to reporting. Conclusion: Experience of animal abuse is common, and veterinarians feel a strong moral duty to act, but can lack confidence in intervening. Abuse cases affect stress levels and compassion fatigue; therefore, support and training are needed.

Relatively little is known about how attachment influences children’s relationships to pets or mediates positive and negative interaction outcomes. We carried out in-depth interviews with 27 children, including nine children at high-risk for animal harm and 18 matched controls. We used the Child Attachment Play Assessment (CAPA), a drawing task and self-report measures including the Short Attachment to Pets Scale (SAPS) and Children’s Animal Harm Behaviours (CAHB). We also designed a novel measure, the ‘Pets In Children’s Attachment Stories’ (PICAS), to probe children’s mentalising about pets, caregiving-behaviours, comfort from pet and parental help. Children at high risk of animal harm were more likely to be classified as insecure (p = 0.002). Drawings indicated secure children tended to feel closer to mothers (p = 0.014) and siblings (p = 0.007), while pets’ proximity did not vary according to attachment strategy. Although insecure children scored lower on mentalising (p = 0.013), caregiving behaviour (p = 0.028) and parental help (p = 0.002), both groups similarly used pets as sources of comfort. There were no differences between attachment patterns on SAPS but there were differences for CAHB scores (p = 0.048). Thus, although insecure attachment was an important risk factor for harming animals, secure and insecure children had similar capacity for bonding with their pets. These results have implications both for how we treat cases of childhood animal harm and for how we understand the supportive role pets can play in children’s lives.