T helper type 9 (TH9) cells can mediate tumor immunity and participate in autoimmune and allergic inflammation in mice but little is known about the TH9 cells that develop in vivo in humans. We isolated T cells from human blood and tissues and found that most memory TH9 cells were skin-tropic or skin-resident. Human TH9 cells co-expressed TNFα and granzyme B, lacked coproduction of TH1/TH2/TH17 cytokines and many were specific for C. albicans. IL-9 production was transient and preceded the up-regulation of other inflammatory cytokines. Blocking studies demonstrated that IL-9 was required for maximal production of IFN-γ, IL-9, IL-13, and IL-17 by skin tropic T cells. IL-9 producing T cells were increased in the skin lesions of psoriasis, suggesting these cells may contribute to human inflammatory skin disease. Our results indicate human TH9 cells are a discrete T cell subset, many are tropic for the skin, and although they may function normally to protect against extracellular pathogens, aberrant activation of these cells may contribute to inflammatory diseases of the skin.

Tocilizumab in combination with MTX as a treatment for RA is associated with a small but significantly increased risk of AEs, which is comparable with that of other biologics. Vigilance for untoward effects is, therefore, imperative in any patient treated with these immuno-suppressive agents.

OBJECTIVEStudies indicate that off-loading adherence is low in patients with diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs), which may subsequently delay healing. However, there is little empirical evidence for this relationship or the factors that influence adherence.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSThis prospective, multicenter, international study of 79 (46 from the U.K. and 33 the U.S.) persons with type 2 diabetes and plantar DFUs assessed the association between off-loading adherence and DFU healing over a 6-week period. Additionally, potential demographic, disease, and psychological determinants of adherence were examined. DFUs were off-loaded with a removable device (77% a removable cast walker). Off-loading adherence was assessed objectively by activity monitors. Patient-reported measures included Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Neuropathy and Foot Ulcer Quality of Life (NeuroQoL) instrument, and Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R).RESULTSOff-loading adherence was monitored for 35 ± 10 days, and devices were used during 59 ± 22% of subjects' activity. In multivariate analyses, smaller baseline DFU size, U.K. study site, and better off-loading adherence predicted smaller DFU size at 6 weeks (P < 0.05). Better off-loading adherence was, in turn, predicted by larger and more severe baseline DFUs, more severe neuropathy, and NeuroQoL foot pain (P < 0.05). In contrast, greater NeuroQoL postural instability predicted worse off-loading adherence (P < 0.001). HADS and IPQ-R measures were not significantly associated with off-loading adherence.CONCLUSIONSOff-loading adherence is associated with the amount of DFU healing that occurs, while postural instability is a powerful predictor of nonadherence. Clinicians should take this neuropathic symptom into consideration when selecting an off-loading device, as off-loading–induced postural instability may further contribute to nonadherence.