A Ridden-Horse-Ethogram has been developed to differentiate between nonlame and lame horses, and lame horses before and after diagnostic analgesia has abolished musculoskeletal pain, based on video recordings. The objective of this prospective, observational study was to compare real-time application of the Ridden-Horse-Ethogram with analysis of video recordings of the horses by a trained assessor and to determine whether veterinarians, after preliminary training, could apply the ethogram in real time in a consistent way and in agreement with an experienced assessor. Ten equine veterinarians (after preliminary training) and an experienced assessor applied the ethogram to 20 horse-rider combinations performing a purpose-designed dressage test (8.5 min). The horses were a convenience sample, in regular work, and capable of working 'on the bit'. Video recordings of the test were analysed retrospectively by the experienced assessor. Lameness or abnormalities of canter, saddle fit, the presence of epaxial muscle tension/pain and rider skill level were determined by independent experts. The results were that 16 horses were lame; 11 had an ill-fitting saddle; 14 had epaxial muscle tension/pain. The expert determined total scores of 3-6/24 for the nonlame horses; two lame horses scored 3 and 6; 14 lame horses scored 8-16. There was no significant difference in real-time scores and video-based scores for the experienced assessor. There was good agreement between the expert's scores and the mean test observer scores. There was excellent consistency in overall agreement among raters (Intraclass correlation 0.97, P<0.001). There was a significant difference between ethogram scores according to lameness status for real-time (P = 0.017) and video (P = 0.013) observations by the experienced assessor and for the test observers' mean (P = 0.03). There was no effect of muscle pain, saddle fit or rider skill on behaviour. It was concluded that the ethogram was applied consistently by veterinarians with differentiation between nonlame and most lame horses. After appropriate training in its application, the ethogram may provide a useful tool for determining the presence of musculoskeletal pain in horses performing poorly.moderate agreement in application of the Ridden Horse Ethogram among veterinarians to determine the presence of 24 behavioural markers; and (3) there would be a significant difference in the ethogram scores for the nonlame and lame horses. Materials and methodsThis was a prospective, observational study which was approved by the Clinical Ethical Review Committee of the Animal Health Trust (AHT-50-2017). 23. Rearing (both forelimbs off the ground) 24. Bucking or kicking backwards (one or both hindlimbs) Assessments were made in walk, trot and canter and on the left and right reins. A total behaviour score of ≥8 (out of 24) is likely to indicate the presence of musculoskeletal pain.

The objective of this study was to report the clinical findings of six horses referred for investigation of head-shaking and to compare and contrast the findings to those of trigeminalmediated head-shaking. The case records of six horses showing head tossing behaviour (vertical up and down movement of the head during ridden exercise) that were referred to the Animal Health Trust were reviewed and a summary of the clinical findings reported. The history was appraised, including video footage when available. A comprehensive clinical examination at rest and exercise, including ridden assessment, was performed on several occasions over at least 2 days; diagnostic analgesia and imaging were carried out. A thorough review of the literature on trigeminal-mediated (idiopathic) head-shaking was performed. All horses showed headtossing behaviour when ridden and two horses also tossed their heads on the lunge. All horses had various sources of musculoskeletal pain. Five horses had abolition of headtossing behaviour after diagnostic analgesia resolved musculoskeletal pain. The remaining horse had significant improvement in this behaviour. This horse also displayed clinical signs at rest and it is likely that there was a component of trigeminal-mediated head-shaking. Many horses with trigeminal-mediated headshaking show clinical signs both at rest and when ridden, often with worsening of clinical signs when ridden. However, all horses in this series showed additional signs of musculoskeletal pain when ridden compared with in hand and on the lunge. None of these horses displayed excessive sneezing or snorting, acting like an insect was flying up the nostril and rubbing and/or striking at the nose with the forelimbs which can often be seen in horses with trigeminalmediated head-shaking. No horse had a history of seasonality of clinical signs. It was concluded that it is important for veterinarians to recognise behavioural signs of pain, such as headtossing during ridden exercise and to be able to differentiate this behaviour from trigeminal-mediated head-shaking.

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SummaryBucking behaviour in horses is potentially dangerous to riders. There is limited information about how bucking behaviour should be investigated by veterinarians. The objectives of this article are to define bucking behaviour, to review the literature relating to bucking and allied behaviours in horses and describe personal observations and to describe an approach to clinical investigation and management strategies. A literature review from 2000 to 2020 was performed via search engines and additional free searches. A buck is an upward leap, usually in addition to forward propulsion, when either both hindlimbs or all four limbs are off the ground with the thoracolumbosacral region raised. Bucking often occurs as a series of such leaps and different manifestations include ‘pronking’, ‘bronking’ and ‘fly bucking’. Causes include excitement, exuberance, defensive behaviour associated with fear, learned behaviour through negative reinforcement or a reaction to musculoskeletal pain. Specific causes of pain include an ill‐fitting saddle or girth, thoracolumbar pain, girth region pain, sternal or rib injury, neuropathic pain, sacroiliac joint region pain, referred pain and primary hindlimb lameness. Any of these may be compounded by a rider who is fearful, poorly balanced or crooked. Determination of the underlying cause requires a comprehensive clinical assessment, including assessment of saddle fit for horse and rider and suitability of the horse–rider combination. In some horses, identification of a primary source of pain allows targeted treatment and resolution of pain, but careful retraining is crucial. An understanding of learning behaviour is required for successful rehabilitation. It was concluded that identification of the cause of bucking may enable treatment of primary pain which, when combined with retraining, results in management of bucking behaviour. However, in a minority of horses, dangerous bucking behaviour cannot be reliably resolved, requiring retirement or euthanasia of the horse.

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