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Little information is available regarding sublethal effects of neonicotinoids on insect predators, many of which perform important roles in ecosystem functioning and biocontrol. In this study, dose-dependent sublethal effects of a dietary administered neonicotinoid insecticide thiamethoxam on two basic behaviours, locomotion and feeding, were quantified in the carabid Platynus assimilis (Coleoptera, Carabidae) using automated video-tracking and weighing of consumed food, respectively. Acute toxicity tests showed that, when orally administered, the LD of thiamethoxam for P. assimilis beetles was 114.5 ng/g. Thiamethoxam at 108.1 ng/g caused a short-term locomotor hyperactivity within several hours of treatment. Next day after exposure to the insecticide, all the beetles were in a state of locomotor hypoactivity independent of the administered dose ranging from 1.1 to 108.1 ng/g. Reduction in clean food consumption rate (CFCR) is another altered behavioural endpoint of poisoned insect predators as first demonstrated in this study. On the first day of thiamethoxam administration, a remarkable reduction in feeding only occurred in beetles treated at 108.1 ng/g but on the next day, this negative effect appeared even at doses ten to a hundred-fold lower. Recovery from locomotion abnormalities and reduced feeding took several days. Both locomotor activity and CFCR are sensitive and valuable ecotoxicological biomarkers of carabids which should be taken into account in Integrated Pest Management programs where optimal combination of reduced insecticide use and biological control by predatory insects is crucial to achieve best results.

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Despite thermosensation being crucial in effective thermoregulation behaviour, it is poorly studied in insects. Very little is known about encoding of noxious high temperatures by peripheral thermoreceptor neurons. In carabids, thermo- and hygrosensitive neurons innervate antennal dome-shaped sensilla (DSS). In this study, we demonstrate that several essential fine structural features of dendritic outer segments of the sensory neurons in the DSS and the classical model of insect thermo- and hygrosensitive sensilla differ fundamentally. Here, we show that spike bursts produced by the bimodal dry neurons in the antennal DSS may contribute to the sensation of noxious heat in P. oblongopunctatus. Our electrophysiological experiments showed that, at temperatures above 25 °C, these neurons switch from humidity-dependent regular spiking to temperature-dependent spike bursting. Five out of seven measured parameters of the bursty spike trains, the percentage of bursty dry neurons, the CV of ISIs in a spike train, the percentage of bursty spikes, the number of spikes in a burst and the ISIs in a burst, are unambiguously dependent on temperature and thus may precisely encode both noxious high steady temperatures up to 45 °C as well as rapid step-changes in it. The cold neuron starts to produce temperature-dependent spike bursts at temperatures above 30-35 °C. Thus, the two neurons encode different but largely overlapping ranges in noxious heat. The extent of dendritic branching and lamellation of the neurons largely varies in different DSS, which might be the structural basis for their variation in threshold temperatures for spike bursting.

Environmental thermal conditions play a major role at all levels of biological organization; however, there is little information on noxious high temperature sensation crucial in behavioral thermoregulation and survival of small ectothermic animals such as insects. So far, a capability to unambiguously encode heat has been demonstrated only for the sensory triad of the spike bursting thermo-and two bimodal hygrothermoreceptor neurons located in the antennal dome-shaped sensilla (DSS) in a carabid beetle. We used extracellular single sensillum recording in the range of 20-45 • C to demonstrate that a similar sensory triad in the elaterid Agriotes obscurus also produces high temperature-induced bursty spike trains. Several parameters of the bursts are temperature dependent, allowing the neurons in a certain order to encode different, but partly overlapping ranges of heat up to lethal levels in a graded manner. ISI in a burst is the most useful parameter out of six. Our findings consider spike bursting as a general, fundamental quality of the classical sensory triad of antennal thermo-and hygro-thermoreceptor neurons widespread in many insect groups, being a flexible and reliable mode of coding unfavorably high temperatures. The possible involvement of spike bursting in behavioral thermoregulation of the beetles is discussed. By contrast, the mean firing rate of the neurons in regular and bursty spike trains combined does not carry useful thermal information at the high end of noxious heat.