Total chemical synthesis was used to prepare the mirror image ( D -protein) form of the angiogenic protein vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A). Phage display against D -VEGF-A was used to screen designed libraries based on a unique small protein scaffold in order to identify a high affinity ligand. Chemically synthesized D - and L - forms of the protein ligand showed reciprocal chiral specificity in surface plasmon resonance binding experiments: The L -protein ligand bound only to D -VEGF-A, whereas the D -protein ligand bound only to L -VEGF-A. The D -protein ligand, but not the L -protein ligand, inhibited the binding of natural VEGF 165 to the VEGFR1 receptor. Racemic protein crystallography was used to determine the high resolution X-ray structure of the heterochiral complex consisting of { D -protein antagonist + L -protein form ofVEGF-A}. Crystallization of a racemic mixture of these synthetic proteins in appropriate stoichiometry gave a racemic protein complex of more than 73 kDa containing six synthetic protein molecules. The structure of the complex was determined to a resolution of 1.6 Å. Detailed analysis of the interaction between the D -protein antagonist and the VEGF-A protein molecule showed that the binding interface comprised a contact surface area of approximately 800 Å 2 in accord with our design objectives, and that the D -protein antagonist binds to the same region of VEGF-A that interacts with VEGFR1-domain 2.
We have re-examined the utility of native chemical ligation at −Gln/Glu-Cys− [Glx-Cys] and −Asn/Asp-Cys− [Asx-Cys] sites. Using the improved thioaryl catalyst 4-mercaptophenylacetic acid (MPAA), native chemical ligation could be performed at −Gln-Cys− and Asn-Cys− sites without side reactions. After optimization, ligation at a −Glu-Cys− could also be used as a ligation site, with minimal levels of byproduct formation. However, −Asp-Cys− is not appropriate for use as a site for native chemical ligation because of formation of significant amounts of β-linked byproduct. The feasibility of native chemical ligation at −Gln-Cys− enabled a convergent total chemical synthesis of the enantiomeric forms of the ShK toxin protein molecule. The D-ShK protein molecule was ~50,000-fold less active in blocking the Kv1.3 channel than the L-ShK protein molecule. Racemic protein crystallography was used to obtain high resolution X-ray diffraction data for ShK toxin. The structure was solved by direct methods and showed significant differences from the previously reported NMR structures in some regions of the ShK protein molecule.
Polypeptides composed entirely of d-amino acids and the achiral amino acid glycine (d-proteins) inherently have in vivo properties that are proposed to be near-optimal for a large molecule therapeutic agent. Specifically, d-proteins are resistant to degradation by proteases and are anticipated to be nonimmunogenic. Furthermore, d-proteins are manufactured chemically and can be engineered to have other desirable properties, such as improved stability, affinity, and pharmacokinetics. Thus, a well-designed d-protein therapeutic would likely have significant advantages over l-protein drugs. Toward the goal of developing d-protein therapeutics, we previously generated RFX001.D, a d-protein antagonist of natural vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) that inhibited binding to its receptor. However, RFX001.D is unstable at physiological temperatures (Tm = 33 °C). Here, we describe RFX037.D, a variant of RFX001.D with extreme thermal stability (Tm > 95 °C), high affinity for VEGF-A (Kd = 6 nM), and improved receptor blocking. Comparison of the two enantiomeric forms of RFX037 revealed that the d-protein is more stable in mouse, monkey, and human plasma and has a longer half-life in vivo in mice. Significantly, RFX037.D was nonimmunogenic in mice, whereas the l-enantiomer generated a strong immune response. These results confirm the potential utility of synthetic d-proteins as alternatives to therapeutic antibodies.
We describe the use of racemic crystallography to determine the X-ray structure of the natural product plectasin, a potent antimicrobial protein recently isolated from fungus. The protein enantiomers L-plectasin and D-plectasin were prepared by total chemical synthesis; interestingly, Lplectasin showed the expected antimicrobial activity, while D-plectasin was devoid of such activity. The mirror image proteins were then used for racemic crystallization. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction data were collected to atomic resolution from a racemic plectasin crystal; the racemate crystallized in the achiral centrosymmetric space group P1 with one L-plectasin molecule and one D-plectasin molecule forming the unit cell. Dimer-like intermolecular interactions between the protein enantiomers were observed, which may account for the observed extremely low solvent content (13%-15%) and more highly ordered nature of the racemic crystals. The structure of the plectasin molecule was well defined for all 40 amino acids and was generally similar to the previously determined NMR structure, suggesting minimal impact of the crystal packing on the plectasin conformation.
Efficient total synthesis of insulin is important to enable the application of medicinal chemistry to the optimization of the properties of this important protein molecule. Recently we described ‘ester insulin’ – a novel form of insulin in which the function of the 35 residue C-peptide of proinsulin is replaced by a single covalent bond – as a key intermediate for the efficient total synthesis of insulin. Here we describe a fully convergent synthetic route to the ester insulin molecule from three unprotected peptide segments of approximately equal size. The synthetic ester insulin polypeptide chain folded much more rapidly than proinsulin, and at physiological pH. Both the D-protein and L-protein enantiomers of monomeric DKP ester insulin (i.e. [AspB10, LysB28, ProB29]ester insulin) were prepared by total chemical synthesis. The atomic structure of the synthetic ester insulin molecule was determined by racemic protein X-ray crystallography to a resolution of 1.6 Å. Diffraction quality crystals were readily obtained from the racemic mixture of {D-DKP ester insulin + L-DKP ester insulin}, whereas crystals were not obtained from the L-ester insulin alone even after extensive trials. Both the D-protein and L-protein enantiomers of monomeric DKP ester insulin were assayed for receptor binding and in diabetic rats, before and after conversion by saponification to the corresponding DKP insulin enantiomers. L-DKP ester insulin bound weakly to the insulin receptor, while synthetic L-DKP insulin derived from the L-DKP ester insulin intermediate was fully active in binding to the insulin receptor. The D- and L-DKP ester insulins and D-DKP insulin were inactive in lowering blood glucose in diabetic rats, while synthetic L-DKP insulin was fully active in this biological assay. The structural basis of the lack of biological activity of ester insulin is discussed.
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