Cells with distinct phenotypes including stem-cell-like properties have been proposed to exist in normal human mammary epithelium and breast carcinomas, but their detailed molecular characteristics and clinical significance are unclear. We determined gene expression and genetic profiles of cells purified from cancerous and normal breast tissue using markers previously associated with stem-cell-like properties. CD24+ and CD44+ cells from individual tumors were clonally related but not always identical. CD44+ cell-specific genes included many known stem-cell markers and correlated with decreased patient survival. The TGF-beta pathway was specifically active in CD44+ cancer cells, where its inhibition induced a more epithelial phenotype. Our data suggest prognostic relevance of CD44+ cells and therapeutic targeting of distinct tumor cell populations.

Extracellular interaction between programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) and programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) leads to tumour-associated immune escape. Here we show that the immunosuppression activity of PD-L1 is stringently modulated by ubiquitination and N-glycosylation. We show that glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) interacts with PD-L1 and induces phosphorylation-dependent proteasome degradation of PD-L1 by β-TrCP. In-depth analysis of PD-L1 N192, N200 and N219 glycosylation suggests that glycosylation antagonizes GSK3β binding. In this regard, only non-glycosylated PD-L1 forms a complex with GSK3β and β-TrCP. We also demonstrate that epidermal growth factor (EGF) stabilizes PD-L1 via GSK3β inactivation in basal-like breast cancer. Inhibition of EGF signalling by gefitinib destabilizes PD-L1, enhances antitumour T-cell immunity and therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 blockade in syngeneic mouse models. Together, our results link ubiquitination and glycosylation pathways to the stringent regulation of PD-L1, which could lead to potential therapeutic strategies to enhance cancer immune therapy efficacy.

Summary Development of life-threatening cancer metastases at distant organs requires disseminated tumor cells’ adaptation to and co-evolution with the drastically different microenvironments of metastatic sites1. Cancer cells of common origin manifest distinct gene expression patterns after metastasizing to different organs2. Clearly, the dynamic interplay between metastatic tumor cells and extrinsic signals at individual metastatic organ sites critically impacts the subsequent metastatic outgrowth3,4. Yet, it is unclear when and how disseminated tumor cells acquire the essential traits from the microenvironment of metastatic organs that prime their subsequent outgrowth. Here we show that primary tumor cells with normal expression of PTEN, an important tumor suppressor, lose PTEN expression after dissemination to the brain, but not to other organs. PTEN level in PTEN-loss brain metastatic tumor cells is restored after leaving brain microenvironment. This brain microenvironment-dependent, reversible PTEN mRNA and protein down-regulation is epigenetically regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs) from astrocytes. Mechanistically, astrocyte-derived exosomes mediate an intercellular transfer of PTEN-targeting miRNAs to metastatic tumor cells, while astrocyte-specific depletion of PTEN-targeting miRNAs or blockade of astrocyte exosome secretion rescues the PTEN loss and suppresses brain metastasis in vivo. Furthermore, this adaptive PTEN loss in brain metastatic tumor cells leads to an increased secretion of cytokine chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), which recruits Iba1+ myeloid cells that reciprocally enhance outgrowth of brain metastatic tumor cells via enhanced proliferation and reduced apoptosis. Our findings demonstrate a remarkable plasticity of PTEN expression in metastatic tumor cells in response to different organ microenvironments, underpinning an essential role of co-evolution between the metastatic cells and their microenvironment during the adaptive metastatic outgrowth. Our findings signify the dynamic and reciprocal cross-talk between tumor cells and the metastatic niche; importantly, they provide new opportunities for effective anti-metastasis therapies, especially of consequence for those brain metastasis patients who are in dire need.

SUMMARY Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) enhances invasiveness and confers tumor cells with cancer stem cell (CSC)-like characteristics. We showed that the Snail-G9a-Dnmt1 complex, which is critical for E-cadherin promoter silencing, is also required for the promoter methylation of fructose-1,6-biphosphatase (FBP1) in basal-like breast cancer (BLBC). Loss of FBP1 induces glycolysis and results in increased glucose uptake, macromolecules biosynthesis, formation of tetrameric PKM2, and maintenance of ATP production under hypoxia. Loss of FBP1 also inhibits oxygen consumption and ROS production by suppressing mitochondrial complex I activity; this metabolic reprogramming results in an increased CSC-like property and tumorigenicity by enhancing the interaction of β-catenin with TCF. Our study indicates that the loss of FBP1 is a critical oncogenic event in EMT and BLBC.