While recent studies indicated roles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in physiologic aspects of cell-type determination and tissue homeostasis1 yet their potential involvement in regulated gene transcription programs remain rather poorly understood. Androgen receptor (AR) regulates a large repertoire of genes central to the identity and behavior of prostate cancer cells2, and functions in a ligand-independent fashion in many prostate cancers when they become hormone refractory after initial androgen deprivation therapy3. Here, we report that two lncRNAs highly overexpressed in aggressive prostate cancer, PRNCR1 and PCGEM1, bind successively to the AR and strongly enhance both ligand-dependent and ligand-independent AR-mediated gene activation programs and proliferation in prostate cancer cells. Binding of PRNCR1 to the C-terminally acetylated AR on enhancers and its association with DOT1L appear to be required for recruitment of the second lncRNA, PCGEM1, to the DOT1L-mediated methylated AR N-terminus. Unexpectedly, recognition of specific protein marks by PCGEM1-recruited Pygopus2 PHD domain proves to enhance selective looping of AR-bound enhancers to target gene promoters in these cells. In “resistant” prostate cancer cells, these overexpressed lncRNAs can interact with, and are required for, the robust activation of both truncated and full length AR, causing ligand-independent activation of the AR transcriptional program and cell proliferation. Conditionally-expressed short hairpin RNA (shRNA) targeting of these lncRNAs in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) cell lines strongly suppressed tumor xenograft growth in vivo. Together, these results suggest that these overexpressed lncRNAs can potentially serve as a required component of castration-resistance in prostatic tumors.

Although prostate cancer (CaP) is the most frequently diagnosed malignant tumor and the second leading cause of cancer deaths in American men, the mechanisms explaining the development and progression of CaP remain largely unknown. Recent studies have shown that some aberrantly expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in tumorigenesis. Although aberrant expression of certain miRNAs has been discovered in CaP, their function in this disease has not yet been defined. In this study, we found differential expression of miR-125b in androgen-dependent and independent CaP cells, as well as in benign and malignant prostate tissues. Furthermore, androgen signaling was able to up-regulate the expression of miR-125b. In addition, transfection of synthetic miR-125b stimulated androgen-independent growth of CaP cells and down-regulated the expression of Bak1. Our results suggest that miR-125b acts as an oncogene, contributing to the pathogenesis of CaP.microRNA ͉ miR-125b ͉ ISH ͉ LNCaP

Multiple mechanisms of resistance contribute to the inevitable progression of hormone-sensitive prostate cancer to castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Currently approved therapies for CRPC include systemic chemotherapy (docetaxel and cabazitaxel) and agents targeting the resistance pathways leading to CRPC, including enzalutamide and abiraterone. While there is significant survival benefit, primary and secondary resistance to these therapies develops rapidly. Up to one-third of patients have primary resistance to enzalutamide and abiraterone; the remaining patients eventually progress on treatment. Understanding the mechanisms of resistance resulting in progression as well as identifying new targetable pathways remains the focus of current prostate cancer research. We review current knowledge of mechanisms of resistance to the currently approved treatments, development of adjunctive therapies, and identification of new pathways being targeted for therapeutic purposes.

The introduction of enzalutamide and abiraterone has led to improvement in the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). However, acquired resistance to enzalutamide and abiraterone therapies frequently develops within a short period in many patients. In the present study, we developed enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer cells in an effort to understand the mechanisms of resistance. Global gene expression analysis showed that steroid biosynthesis pathway is activated in enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer cells. One of the crucial steroidogenic enzymes, AKR1C3, was significantly elevated in enzalutamide resistant cells. In addition, AKR1C3 is highly expressed in metastatic and recurrent prostate cancer and in enzalutamide resistant prostate xenograft tumors. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis of the steroid metabolites revealed that androgen precursors such as cholesterol, DHEA and progesterone, as well as androgens are highly up regulated in enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer cells compared to the parental cells. Knock down of AKR1C3 expression by shRNA or inhibition of AKR1C3 enzymatic activity by indomethacin resensitized enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer cells to enzalutamide treatment both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, overexpression of AKR1C3 confers resistance to enzalutamide. Furthermore, the combination of indomethacin and enzalutamide resulted in significant inhibition of enzalutamide-resistant tumor growth. These results suggest that AKR1C3 activation is a critical resistance mechanism associated with enzalutamide resistance, targeting intracrine androgens and AKR1C3 will overcome enzalutamide resistance and improve survival of advanced prostate cancer patients.

Expansions of an intronic GAA repeat reduce the expression of frataxin and cause Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA), an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disease. Frataxin is a mitochondrial protein, and disruption of a frataxin homolog in yeast results in increased sensitivity to oxidant stress, increased mitochondrial iron and respiration deficiency. These previous data support the hypothesis that FRDA is a disease of mitochondrial oxidative stress, a hypothesis we have tested in cultured cells from FRDA patients. FRDA fibroblasts were hypersensitive to iron stress and significantly more sensitive to hydrogen peroxide than controls. The iron chelator deferoxamine rescued FRDA fibroblasts more than controls from oxidant-induced death, consistent with a role for iron in the differential kinetics of death; however, mean mitochondrial iron content in FRDA fibroblasts was increased by only 40%. Treatment of cells with the intracellular Ca2+chelator BAPTA-AM rescued both FRDA fibroblasts and controls from oxidant-induced death. Treatment with apoptosis inhibitors rescued FRDA but not control fibroblasts from oxidant stress, and staurosporine-induced caspase 3 activity was higher in FRDA fibroblasts, consistent with the possibility that an apoptotic step upstream of caspase 3 is activated in FRDA fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that FRDA fibroblasts are sensitive to oxidant stress, and may be a useful model in which to elucidate the FRDA mechanism and therapeutic strategies.