Enhanced bone destruction is a hallmark of various carcinomas such as breast cancer, where osteolytic bone metastasis is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Immune cells contribute to osteolysis in cancer growth but the factors contributing to aggressive bone destruction are not well understood. In this study, we demonstrate the importance of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) in this process at bone metastatic sites. Since MDSC originate from the same myeloid lineage as macrophages, which are osteoclast precursors, we hypothesized that MDSC may undergo osteoclast differentiation and contribute to enhanced bone destruction and tumor growth. Using an immunocompetent mouse model of breast cancer bone metastasis, we confirmed that MDSC isolated from the tumor-bone microenvironment differentiated into functional osteoclasts both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistic investigations revealed that nitric oxide signaling was critical for differentiation of MDSC into osteoclasts. Remarkably, osteoclast differentiation did not occur in MDSC isolated from control or tumor-bearing mice that lacked bone metastasis, signifying the essential cross-talk between tumor cells and myeloid progenitors in the bone microenvironment as a requirement for osteoclast differentiation of MDSC. Overall, our results identify a wholly new facet to the multifunctionality of MDSC in driving tumor progression, in this case as a novel osteoclast progenitor that specifically drives bone metastasis during cancer progression.

Background: Interleukin 1-mediated osteoclastogenesis requires permissive levels of RANKL or RANKL pretreatment. Results: Interleukin 1 can only activate the expression of osteoclast markers and osteoclastogenic transcription factor NFATc1 with permissive levels of RANKL or RANKL pretreatment. Conclusion: RANKL is involved in interleukin 1-mediated osteoclastogenesis by rendering osteoclast and NFATc1 genes responsive to interleukin 1. Significance: This is a novel mechanism of interleukin 1-mediated osteoclastogenesis.

The pathogenesis of cleidocranial dysplasia (CCD) as well as the specific role of core binding factor β (Cbfβ) and the Runt-related transcription factor (RUNX)/Cbfβ complex in postnatal skeletogenesis remain unclear. We demonstrate that Cbfβ ablation in osteoblast precursors, differentiating chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and odontoblasts via Osterix-Cre, results in severe craniofacial dysplasia, skeletal dysplasia, abnormal teeth, and a phenotype recapitulating the clinical features of CCD. Cbfβ f/f Osterix-Cre mice have fewer proliferative and hypertrophic chondrocytes, fewer osteoblasts, and almost absent trabecular bone, indicating that Cbfβ may maintain trabecular bone formation through its function in hypertrophic chondrocytes and osteoblasts. Cbfβ f/f Collagen, type 1, alpha 1 (Col1α1)-Cre mice show decreased bone mineralization and skeletal deformities, but no radical deformities in teeth, mandibles, or cartilage, indicating that osteoblast lineage-specific ablation of Cbfβ results in milder bone defects and less resemblance to CCD. Activating transcription factor 4 (Atf4) and Osterix protein levels in both mutant mice are dramatically reduced. ChIP assays show that Cbfβ directly associates with the promoter regions of Atf4 and Osterix. Our data further demonstrate that Cbfβ highly up-regulates the expression of Atf4 at the transcriptional regulation level. Overall, our genetic dissection approach revealed that Cbfβ plays an indispensable role in postnatal skeletal development and homeostasis in various skeletal cell types, at least partially by up-regulating the expression of Atf4 and Osterix. It also revealed that CCD may result from functional defects of the Runx2/Cbfβ heterodimeric complex in various skeletal cells. These insights into the role of Cbfβ in postnatal skeletogenesis and CCD pathogenesis may assist in the development of new therapies for CCD and osteoporosis.osteoblast differentiation | chondrocyte differentiation | ossification | growth plate formation | endochondral bone formation

Tumor necrosis factor-␣ (TNF) enhances osteoclast formation and activity leading to bone loss in various pathological conditions, but its precise role in osteoclastogenesis remains controversial. Although several groups showed that TNF can promote osteoclastogenesis independently of the receptor activator of NF-B (RANK) ligand (RANKL), others demonstrated that TNF-mediated osteoclastogenesis needs permissive levels of RANKL. Here, we independently reveal that although TNF cannot stimulate osteoclastogenesis on bone slices, it can induce the formation of functional osteoclasts on bone slices in the presence of permissive levels of RANKL or from bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) pretreated by RANKL. TNF can still promote the formation of functional osteoclasts 2 days after transient RANKL pretreatment. These data have confirmed that TNF-mediated osteoclastogenesis requires priming of BMMs by RANKL. Moreover, we investigated the molecular mechanism underlying the dependence of TNF-mediated osteoclastogenesis on RANKL. RANK, the receptor for RANKL, contains an IVVY 535-538 motif that has been shown to play a vital role in osteoclastogenesis by committing BMMs to the osteoclast lineage. We show that TNF-induced osteoclastogenesis depends on RANKL to commit BMMs to the osteoclast lineage and RANKL regulates the lineage commitment through the IVVY motif. Mechanistically, the IVVY motif controls the lineage commitment by reprogramming osteoclast genes into an inducible state in which they can be activated by TNF. Our findings not only provide important mechanistic insights into the action of RANKL in TNF-mediated osteoclastogenesis but also establish that the IVVY motif may serve as an attractive therapeutic target for bone loss in various bone disorders.TNF, a proinflammatory cytokine produced by many cells including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and macrophages, plays a critical role in immune and inflammatory responses (1). Consequently, aberration in TNF expression and function has been associated with many autoimmune disorders and inflammatory complications (2). Moreover, this potent proinflammatory cytokine has also been shown to be a pro-osteoclastogenic factor and thus promotes bone loss in postmenopausal osteoporosis (3) and inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis (4) and periodontitis (5) by stimulating osteoclast formation and function.Osteoclasts, the sole bone-resorbing cells in the body, are multinucleated giant cells derived from mononuclear cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage upon stimulation by the macrophage/monocyte colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) 2 and RANKL (6). RANKL (also known as OPGL, ODF, and TRANCE), identified as a member of the TNF superfamily (7, 8), stimulates osteoclast formation and function by activating its receptor RANK, a member of the TNF receptor (TNFR) superfamily (8). RANKL also has a soluble decoy receptor, osteoprotegerin (OPG), which inhibits RANKL functions by competing with RANK for binding RANKL (9). Members of the TNFR superfamily primarily employ TNF re...

Using RA and periodontitis mouse models, we demonstrated that RA and periodontitis share many pathological features, such as deregulated cytokine production, increased immune-cell infiltration, increased expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and enhanced osteoclast activity and bone erosion. We revealed that genetic deletion of Cathepsin K (Ctsk) caused a radical reduction in inflammation and bone erosion within RA joint capsules and periodontal lesions, a drastic decrease in immune-cell infiltration, and a significant reduction in osteoclasts, macrophages, dendritic and T-cells. Deficiency of Ctsk greatly decreased the expression of TLR-4, 5, and 9 and their downstream cytokines in periodontal gingival epithelial lesions and synovial RA lesions. Hence, Ctsk may be targeted to treat RA and periodontitis simultaneously due to its shared osteoimmune role.