Background and objectives: The goal of this literature review is to compare current studies regarding the accuracy of different serum markers in differentiating viral from bacterial pneumonia in the pediatric population with what is employed in the medical settings at present. Currently there is still a lack of significant research, that would give us evaluation on biomarkers benefits towards getting a definite diagnosis of pneumonia. Finding out the potential of biomarkers to differentiate between viral and bacterial pneumonia is also important because knowing the exact pathogen would prevent irrational use of antibiotics. At present, irrational, broad-spectrum antibiotic use and increasing antibiotic resistance in microorganisms are still one of the greatest challenges in clinical settings. The use of biomarkers in clinical practice would not only facilitate accurate diagnosis, but would also help to reduce the amount of antibiotics overuse. Materials and methods: Literature search conducted on Medline and Google Scholar using a combination of terms. Articles that were in English and within ten years of the search date were manually sorted according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: Initial search returned n = 13,408. After activating filters, n = 140 were identified of which n = 12 included for literature review. Conclusions: Rise or drop in the concentration of a single marker is not accurate enough for predicting viral/ bacterial community acquired pneumonia. This is because there is overlapping to a varying extent depending on the marker cutoff values, detection methods, analyses, the desired specificity, and sensitivity. Furthermore, the presence of mixed infection makes almost all markers suboptimal to be used universally. New markers such as MxA1 and HMGB1 gave promising results. However, to replicate a similar testing condition in a clinical environment may not be practical. Another approach is to make use of more than one marker and combine with clinical signs and symptoms. This may not be cost-effective in many clinical settings; nevertheless, in many studies, marker combination greatly improved the predictive power.

SUMMARY— The seed of high oil hybrids and open pollinated sunflower varieties from experimental plantings at nine locations in six southern states in 1969 was analyzed for moisture, crude protein, total oil and fatty acid composition. Total oil content ranged from 28.8–44.7% with an average of 35.3% for hybrid varieties and 39.5% for open pollinated varieties. The crude protein ranged from 16.9–25.1%. All the introductions mere relatively low in palmitic and stearic acids. Small amounts of palmitoleic, linolenic, arachidic, behenic and lignoceric acids were present in all samples. Oleic acid ranged from 33.4–62.7% and linoleic acid from 27.3–54.2%. The average oleic and linoleic acid content of the open pollinated varieties at the nine locations was 46.6 and 41.6%, respectively, as compared to 49.4 and 39.6% for the hybrids. The linoleic acid content of sunflower oil varied inversely with temperature during development of the seed. The oil of the sunflowers grown at the warmer locations and at the lower latitudes had a lower linoleic acid content than of those grown at somewhat cooler locations and higher latitudes.

Miscella refining and winterization produced a sunflower seed salad oil that did not cloud on refrigeration for 7 days. Refining reduced phospholipid content, and this facilitated wax removal during winterization.

Samples of freshly dehulled, confectionery sunflower kernels were adjusted to moistures of 5.2, 10.5, and 14.7%, sealed in plastic bags and stored at 35, 75, and 95 F (1.7, 23.9, and 35 C) for 12 weeks. At 2-week intervals aliquots were removed for flavor, chemical, and microbiological analyses. Acid values of oil extracted from stored kernels increased with temperature, moisture content, and storage time. At acid values of 4 or higher, kernels had a sour flavor. In general, the peroxide value decreased with increased moisture at each temperature and storage period. The initial aerobic plate count of the sunflower kernels was log 6.83/g, the Enterobacteriaceae count was log 6.15/g, and the yeast and mold count was log 3.65/g. From countable plates randomly selected, about 80% of the Enterobacteriaceae were identified as Enterobacter agglomerans (Erwinia herbicola). At 35 F microbial counts generally changed little. At 75 F, however, counts decreased rapidly; and at 95 F, yeast and mold counts of 14.7% moisture kernels increased, Enterobacteriaceae counts decreased, and aerobic plate counts decreased except in high moisture samples. A microbiological survey of whole sunflower seed and dehulled kernels from three dehulling operations indicated that contamination of the dehulled kernels was primarily from sunflower hulls rather than from processing equipment.