[1] Land-atmosphere interactions on the Tibetan Plateau are important because of their influence on energy and water cycles on both regional and global scales. Flux variance and eddy covariance methods were used to measure turbulent fluxes of heat, water vapor, and momentum over a Tibetan shortgrass prairie during the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) Asian Monsoon Experiment (GAME) in 1998. Under unstable conditions during the monsoon period (July-September), the observed standard deviations of temperature and specific humidity (normalized by appropriate scaling parameters) followed the Monin-Obukhov theory. The similarity constants for heat C T and water vapor C q in their dimensionless functions of stability under a free convection limit were both 1.1, unlike the differences (i.e., C T C q ) reported in other studies. While the transfer efficiency of heat and water vapor exchange generally agreed with the prediction from the Monin-Obukhov theory, momentum exchange was less efficient than predicted. In comparison with the eddy covariance data, the flux variance method (with C T = C q = 1.1) underestimated both heat and water vapor fluxes by <5%. When the eddy covariance data were absent, the flux variance method was used for gap filling the seasonal flux database. To estimate latent heat flux during the premonsoon period in June, C T /C q was approximated as r Tq (where r Tq is a correlation coefficient for the fluctuations of temperature and water vapor) because of the sensitivity of C q to changes in soil moisture conditions. The dramatic changes in the Bowen ratio from 9.0 to 0.4 indicate the shift of energy sources for atmospheric heating over the plateau, which, in turn, resulted in the shift of turbulent exchange mechanisms for heat and water vapor.
Abstract. Considering the feedback in radiation, temperature, and soil moisture with alterations in rainfall patterns, the influence of the changing monsoon on Net Ecosystem CO 2 Exchange (NEE) can be critical to the estimation of carbon balance in Asia. In this paper, we examined CO 2 fluxes measured by the eddy covariance method from 2004 to 2008 in two major ecosystems in the KoFlux sites in Korea, i.e., the Gwangneung Deciduous forest (GDK) and the Haenam Farmland (HFK). Our objectives were to identify the repeatability of the mid-season depression of NEE encountered at the two sites based on the single-year observation, and to further scrutinize its cause, effect, and interannual variability by using multi-year observations. In both GDK and HFK sites, the mid-season depression of NEE was reproduced each year but with different timing, magnitude, and mechanism. At the GDK site, a predominant factor causing the mid-season depression was a decreased solar radiation and the consequent reduction in Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) during the summer monsoon period. At the HFK site, however, the monsoonal effect was less pronounced and the apparent mid-season depression was mainly a result of the management practices such as cultivation of spring barley and rice transplantation. Other flux observation sites in East Asia also showed a decline in radiation but with a lesser degree during Correspondence to: H. Kwon (hyojungkwon@yonsei.ac.kr) the monsoon season, resulting in less pronounced depression in NEE. In our study, the observed depressions in NEE caused both GDK and HFK sites to become a weaker carbon sink or even a source in the middle of the growing season. On average, the GDK site (with maximum leaf area index of ∼5) was a weak carbon sink with NEE of −84 gC m −2 y −1 . Despite about 20% larger GPP (of 1321 gC m −2 y −1 ) in comparison with the GDK site, the HFK site (with maximum leaf area index of 3-4) was a weaker carbon sink with NEE of −58 gC m −2 y −1 because of greater ecosystem respiration (of 1263 gC m −2 y −1 ). These NEE values were near the low end of the ranges reported in the literature for similar ecosystems in mid-latitudes. With the projected trends of the extended length of monsoon with more intensive rainfalls in East Asia, the observed delicate coupling between carbon and hydrological cycles may turn these key ecosystems into carbon neutral.
The monsoon system is an important natural driver of ecosystem carbon and water exchanges in Asia and is being altered by anthropogenic forcings. This system is accompanied by heavy rainfall and typhoons in the main growing season, thus causing alterations of environmental conditions such as rainfall, wind, and temperature; therefore, it acts as a natural disturbance to forests in Asia. Therefore, degradation of ecosystem service by monsoon activity reinforced by anthropogenic factors in a changing climate is of great concern. In this study, we presented observational evidences for the interplay of terrestrial carbon and water dynamics with the Asian monsoon and their implication in ecosystem modeling. We analyzed 3-year eddy-covariance data at a temperate deciduous forest in Korea. We used wavelet power and coherence spectra to investigate the Asian monsoon system and to determine its impact on the ecosystem. During the study period, our analysis showed strong coupling between ecosystem functioning and temporal variations of monsoon climate. Further scrutiny on the model outputs showed that the model did not accurately reproduce the observed plant phenology and thus ecosystem carbon and water exchanges disturbed by monsoon activities. Our findings suggest that under projected climate scenarios, terrestrial carbon sinks in monsoon Asia will decline if the monsoon disturbance will exceed its natural range of variation and if there is no enhancement in the robustness of the ecosystem in this region.
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