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[1] The annual cycle climatology of cloud amount, cloud-top pressure, and optical thickness in two generations of climate models is compared to satellite observations to identify changes over time in the fidelity of simulated clouds. In more recent models, there is widespread reduction of a bias associated with too many highly reflective clouds, with the best models having eliminated this bias. With increased amounts of clouds with lesser reflectivity, the compensating errors that permit models to simulate the time-mean radiation balance have been reduced. Errors in cloud amount as a function of height or climate regime on average show little or no improvement, although greater improvement can be found in individual models. Measuring Changes in the Simulations of Global Cloudiness Over Time[2] The simulation of clouds by climate models is a key ongoing challenge in the numerical representation of Earth's climate. Due to their large impact on Earth's radiation budget, clouds are important for determining aspects of current climate, such as surface air temperatures in many regions [Ma et al., 1996;Curry et al., 1996], the strength and variability of atmospheric circulations [Slingo and Slingo, 1988], and the magnitude of climate changes that result from perturbations in the chemical composition of the atmosphere [IPCC, 2007]. While important, the modeling of clouds is very difficult because most cloud processes happen at scales far smaller than can be resolved by climate models, and thus, their bulk effects must be represented with imperfect parameterizations.[3] Given the efforts of many scientists over several decades to understand cloud processes and improve their representation in models, it is important to ask are climate model simulations of clouds improving and, if so, by how much? Here, we analyze the ability of two generations of climate models to simulate the climatological distribution of clouds and judge fidelity by comparison to several decades of satellite observations. Because of the significant differences between the ways clouds are observed and the ways they are represented in models, we use a "satellite simulator" to increase the chances that differences between the models and observations represent actual model deficiencies. We find that significant progress in the ability of models to simulate clouds has occurred over the last decade, particularly in reducing the over-prediction of highly reflective clouds [Zhang et al., 2005].

This version is available at https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/1671/ Strathprints is designed to allow users to access the research output of the University of Strathclyde. Unless otherwise explicitly stated on the manuscript, Copyright © and Moral Rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. Please check the manuscript for details of any other licences that may have been applied. You may not engage in further distribution of the material for any profitmaking activities or any commercial gain. You may freely distribute both the url (https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/) and the content of this paper for research or private study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge.Any correspondence concerning this service should be sent to the Strathprints administrator: strathprints@strath.ac.ukThe Strathprints institutional repository (https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk) is a digital archive of University of Strathclyde research outputs. It has been developed to disseminate open access research outputs, expose data about those outputs, and enable the management and persistent access to Strathclyde's intellectual output. Abstract BackgroundAn important element of many anti-bullying programmes is encouraging victims to tell someone about their predicament. Research has already reported prevalence of telling, who/when children tell and efficacy of telling. However, seeking help can be viewed as a coping behaviour, and coping processes such as appraisal and emotion may be important predictors of whether pupils ask for help. AimsTo examine the effects that background (gender, school-stage), victimisation (duration, frequency), appraisal (threat, challenge, control) and negative emotion have upon support seeking by child and adolescent victims of peer-aggression and bullying. To also examine the how effective pupils perceive social support to be. SampleParticipants were 830 children (49% male) aged 9 -14 years. Three hundred and seventeen pupils were in Primary Six, 306 in Secondary Two and 205 in Secondary Three. MethodA self-report bullying questionnaire was completed by the participants within their classes.Questionnaires included items relating to victimisation, appraisal, emotion, and coping strategy choice as well as demographic data. ResultsHierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that gender, challenge appraisals, and emotions were significant predictors of the degree to which child and adolescent victims of peer-aggression and bullying sought help (accounting for 15.8% of the variance): girls were more likely than boys to seek help, as were pupils with high challenge appraisals or those experiencing high levels of negative emotion. Also, girls were more likely than boys to view support as the best strategy for both stopping bullying and for helping them to feel better. Conclusion

BackgroundTo test for cross-sectional (at age 11) and longitudinal associations between objectively measured free-living physical activity (PA) and academic attainment in adolescents.Method Data from 4755 participants (45% male) with valid measurement of PA (total volume and intensity) by accelerometry at age 11 from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) was examined. Data linkage was performed with nationally administered school assessments in English, Maths and Science at ages 11, 13 and 16.ResultsIn unadjusted models, total volume of PA predicted decreased academic attainment. After controlling for total volume of PA, percentage of time spent in moderate-vigorous intensity PA (MVPA) predicted increased performance in English assessments in both sexes, taking into account confounding variables. In Maths at 16 years, percentage of time in MVPA predicted increased performance for males (standardised β=0.11, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.22) and females (β=0.08, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.16). For females the percentage of time spent in MVPA at 11 years predicted increased Science scores at 11 and 16 years (β=0.14 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.25) and 0.14 (0.07 to 0.21), respectively). The correction for regression dilution approximately doubled the standardised β coefficients.ConclusionsFindings suggest a long-term positive impact of MVPA on academic attainment in adolescence.

Weather forecasts started from realistic initial conditions are used to diagnose the large warm and dry bias over the United States Southern Great Plains simulated by the GFDL climate model. The forecasts exhibit biases in surface air temperature and precipitation within 3 days which appear to be similar to the climate bias. With the model simulating realistic evaporation but underestimated precipitation, a deficit in soil moisture results which amplifies the initial temperature bias through feedbacks with the land surface. The underestimate of precipitation may be associated with an inability of the model to simulate the eastward propagation of convection from the front‐range of the Rocky Mountains and is insensitive to an increase of horizontal resolution from 2° to 0.5° latitude.