Key points• Perinatal maternal high-fat diet changes milk composition, resulting in obesity and hyperglycaemia in male offspring at weaning.• Offspring obesity is associated with hyperleptinaemia and changes in the central leptin signalling pathway in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus.• Maternal high-fat diet increased adrenal catecholamines in offspring but reduced liver and adipose tissue adrenoreceptors, thereby contributing to increased adiposity in these animals.• Early obesity and hyperleptinaemia in offspring may have a stimulatory effect on the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis as an adaptive response to the positive energy balance.• Both catecholamines and thyroid hormones may impact cardiovascular function, thereby contributing to the development of hypertension.Abstract Maternal nutritional status affects the future development of offspring. Both undernutrition and overnutrition in critical periods of life (gestation or lactation) may cause several hormonal changes in the pups and programme obesity in the adult offspring. We have shown that hyperleptinaemia during lactation results in central leptin resistance, higher adrenal catecholamine secretion, hyperthyroidism, and higher blood pressure and heart rate in the adult rats. Here, we evaluated the effect of a maternal isocaloric high-fat diet on breast milk composition and its impact on leptinaemia, energy metabolism, and adrenal and thyroid function of the offspring at weaning. We hypothesised that the altered source of fat in the maternal diet even under normal calorie intake would disturb the metabolism of the offspring. Female Wistar rats were fed a normal (9% fat; C group) or high-fat diet (29% fat as lard; HF group) for 8 weeks before mating and during pregnancy and lactation. HF mothers presented increased total body fat content after 8 weeks (+27%, P < 0.05) and a similar fat content at the end of lactation. In consequence, the breast milk from the HF group had higher concentration of protein (+18%, P < 0.05), cholesterol (+52%, P < 0.05) and triglycerides (+86%, P < 0.05). At weaning, HF offspring had increased body weight (+53%, P < 0.05) and adiposity (2 fold, P < 0.05), which was associated with lower β3-adrenoreceptor content in adipose tissue (−40%, P < 0.05). The offspring also presented hyperglycaemia (+30%, P < 0.05) and hyperleptinaemia (+62%, P < 0.05). In the leptin signalling pathway in the hypothalamus, we found lower p-STAT3/STAT3 (−40%, P < 0.05) and SOCS3 (−55%, P < 0.05) content in the arcuate nucleus, suggesting leptin resistance. HF offspring also had higher adrenal catecholamine content (+17%, P < 0.05), liver glycogen content (+50%, P < 0.05) and hyperactivity of the thyroid axis at weaning. Our results suggest that a high fat diet increases maternal body fat and this additional energy is transferred to the offspring during lactation, since at weaning the dams had normal fat and the pups were obese.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs). They mediate significant effects in the fine-tune adjustment of body homeostasis. Phyto- and synthetic cannabinoids also rule the daily life of billions worldwide, as they are involved in obesity, depression and drug addiction. Consequently, there is growing interest to reveal novel active compounds in this field. Cloning of cannabinoid receptors in the 90s and the identification of the endogenous mediators arachidonylethanolamide (anandamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonyglycerol (2-AG), led to the characterization of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), together with their metabolizing enzymes and membrane transporters. Today, the ECS is known to be involved in diverse functions such as appetite control, food intake, energy balance, neuroprotection, neurodegenerative diseases, stroke, mood disorders, emesis, modulation of pain, inflammatory responses, as well as in cancer therapy. Western diet as well as restriction of micronutrients and fatty acids, such as DHA, could be related to altered production of pro-inflammatory mediators (e.g. eicosanoids) and ECs, contributing to the progression of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, depression or impairing conditions, such as Alzheimer' s disease. Here we review how diets based in PUFAs might be linked to ECS and to the maintenance of central and peripheral metabolism, brain plasticity, memory and learning, blood flow, and genesis of neural cells.

Previously we have reported that maternal malnutrition during lactation programmes body weight and thyroid function in the adult offspring. In the present study we evaluated the effect of maternal protein restriction during lactation upon body composition and hormones related to glucose homeostasis in adult rats. During lactation, Wistar lactating rats and their pups were divided into two experimental groups: control (fed a normal diet; 23 % protein) and protein-restricted (PR; fed a diet containing 8 % protein). At weaning, offspring received a normal diet until they were 180 d old. Body weight (BW) and food intake were monitored. Serum, adrenal glands, visceral fat mass (VFM) and carcasses were collected. PR rats showed lower BW (213 %; P, 0·05), VFM (2 33 %; P,0·05), total body fat (233 %; P, 0·05), serum glucose (27 %; P, 0·05), serum insulin (2 26 %, P,0·05), homeostasis model assessment index (2 20 %), but higher total adrenal catecholamine content (þ 90 %; P,0·05) and serum corticosterone concentration (þ 51 %; P,0·05). No change was observed in food intake, protein mass or total body water. The lower BW of PR rats is due to a reduction of white fat tissue, probably caused by an increase in lipolysis or impairment of lipogenesis; both effects could be related to higher catecholaminergic status, as well as to hypoinsulinaemia. To conclude, changes in key hormones which control intermediary metabolism are programmed by maternal protein restriction during lactation, resulting in BW alterations in adult rats.

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