No abstract

The acoustic startle reflex (ASR) is subject to substantial variability. This inherent variability consequently shapes the conclusions drawn from gap-induced prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex (GPIAS) assessments. Recent studies have cast doubt as to the efficacy of this methodology as it pertains to tinnitus assessment, partially, due to variability in and between data sets. The goal of this study was to examine the variance associated with several common data collection variables and data analyses with the aim to improve GPIAS reliability. To study this the GPIAS tests were conducted in adult male and female CBA/CaJ mice. Factors such as inter-trial interval, circadian rhythm, sex differences, and sensory adaptation were each evaluated. We then examined various data analysis factors which influence GPIAS assessment. Gap-induced facilitation, data processing options, and assessments of tinnitus were studied. We found that the startle reflex is highly variable in CBA/CaJ mice, but this can be minimized by certain data collection factors. We also found that careful consideration of temporal fluctuations of the ASR and controlling for facilitation can lead to more accurate GPIAS results. This study provides a guide for reducing variance in the GPIAS methodology - thereby improving the diagnostic power of the test.

Arrestins belong to a family of multifunctional adaptor proteins that regulate internalization of diverse receptors including G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Defects associated with endocytosis of GPCRs have been linked to human diseases. We employed eGFP-tagged arrestin 2 (Arr2) to monitor the turnover of the major rhodopsin (Rh1) in live Drosophila. We demonstrate that during degeneration of norpAP24 photoreceptors the loss of Rh1 is parallel to the disappearance of rhabdomeres, the specialized visual organelle that houses Rh1. The cause of degeneration in norpAP24 is due to a failure to activate CaMKII and RDGC because of a loss of light-dependent Ca2+ entry. A lack of activation in CaMKII, which phosphorylates Arr2, leads to hypophosphorylated Arr2, while a lack of activation of RDGC, which dephosphorylates Rh1, results in hyperphosphorylated Rh1. We investigated how reversible phosphorylation of Rh1 and Arr2 contributes to photoreceptor degeneration. To uncover the consequence underlying a lack of CaMKII activation, we characterized ala1 flies in which CaMKII was suppressed by an inhibitory peptide, and showed that morphology of rhabdomeres was not affected. In contrast, we found that expression of phosphorylation deficient Rh1s, which either lack the C-terminus or contain Ala substitution in the phosphorylation sites, was able to prevent degeneration of norpAP24 photoreceptors. This suppression is not due to a loss of Arr2 interaction. Importantly, co-expression of these modified Rh1s offered protective effects, which greatly delayed photoreceptor degeneration. Taken together, we conclude that phosphorylation of Rh1 is the major determinant that orchestrates its internalization leading to retinal degeneration.