Background Low- and middle-income countries continue to experience a large burden of stunting; 148 million children were estimated to be stunted, around 30–40% of all children in 2011. In many of these countries, foetal growth restriction (FGR) is common, as is subsequent growth faltering in the first 2 years. Although there is agreement that stunting involves both prenatal and postnatal growth failure, the extent to which FGR contributes to stunting and other indicators of nutritional status is uncertain. Methods Using extant longitudinal birth cohorts (n = 19) with data on birth-weight, gestational age and child anthropometry (12–60 months), we estimated study-specific and pooled risk estimates of stunting, wasting and underweight by small-for-gestational age (SGA) and preterm birth. Results We grouped children according to four combinations of SGA and gestational age: adequate size-for-gestational age (AGA) and preterm; SGA and term; SGA and preterm; and AGA and term (the reference group). Relative to AGA and term, the OR (95% confidence interval) for stunting associated with AGA and preterm, SGA and term, and SGA and preterm was 1.93 (1.71, 2.18), 2.43 (2.22, 2.66) and 4.51 (3.42, 5.93), respectively. A similar magnitude of risk was also observed for wasting and underweight. Low birthweight was associated with 2.5–3.5-fold higher odds of wasting, stunting and underweight. The population attributable risk for overall SGA for outcomes of childhood stunting and wasting was 20% and 30%, respectively. Conclusions This analysis estimates that childhood undernutrition may have its origins in the foetal period, suggesting a need to intervene early, ideally during pregnancy, with interventions known to reduce FGR and preterm birth.

Polymyxins B and E1 and gramicidin S are bacterium-derived cationic antimicrobial peptides. The polymyxins were more potent than gramicidin S against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with MICs of 0.125 to 0.25 and 8 g/ml, respectively. These peptides differed in their affinities for binding to lipopolysaccharide, but all were able to permeabilize the outer membrane of wild-type P. aeruginosa PAO1 strain H103, suggesting differences in their mechanisms of self-promoted uptake. Gramicidin S caused rapid depolarization of the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane at concentrations at which no killing was observed within 30 min, whereas, conversely, the concentrations of the polymyxins that resulted in rapid killing resulted in minimal depolarization. These data indicate that the depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane by these peptides did not correlate with bacterial cell lethality.Gramicidin S and the polymyxins are nonribosomally produced peptides obtained from bacteria. They have achieved widespread usage as topical agents (4). Gramicidin S is a dibasic cyclic decapeptide with a two-stranded antiparallel ␤-sheet structure with the strands interconnected by two type II ␤-turns (4, 6). The polymyxins, including polymyxin B and colistin (a mixture of polymyxins E1 and E2), are a family of closely related pentabasic peptide antibiotics containing a cycloheptapeptide ring with a C-8 or C-9 fatty acid attached through an amide bond (17). Both classes of antibiotics are active against many gram-negative and a few gram-positive microorganisms (13,15). Colymycin M, a derivative of colistin with the positive charges neutralized by methane sulfonate, has been developed as an anti-Pseudomonas aeruginosa prodrug that is being used in aerosol formulations to treat patients with cystic fibrosis (8). Although these antibiotics were discovered more than 50 years ago, their mode of action is still not precisely known. A number of studies have suggested that polymyxins (4, 18), related octapeptins (14), and gramicidin S (6) can act on bacterial cytoplasmic membranes, although many of these studies, especially those performed with the polymyxins and octapeptins, were done at high multiples of the MIC. Polymyxin B was also shown to have pleiotropic effects on respiration, uptake, and efflux of ␣-methylglucopyranoside and RNA and DNA synthesis (13,20).Gramicidin S and the polymyxins share two unique features with the antimicrobial peptides from animals, plants, and insects in that they are polycationic and amphipathic (4, 5). Such characteristics have been thought to contribute to the mechanism of killing of gram-negative bacteria by cationic antimicrobial peptides by promoting the initial interaction with the negatively charged surface molecule lipopolysaccharide (LPS), leading to self-promoted uptake across the outer membrane and subsequently promoting the interaction with and insertion into the negatively charged cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria (4,20). This can lead to membrane perturbation and probably the translocation of the peptide acros...

Objective To examine the impact of antenatal supplementation with multiple micronutrients or iron and folic acid compared with folic acid alone on birth weight, duration of gestation, and maternal haemoglobin concentration in the third trimester. Design Cluster randomised double blind controlled trial. Setting Two rural counties in north west China. Participants 5828 pregnant women and 4697 live births. Interventions Villages were randomised for all pregnant women to take either daily folic acid (control), iron with folic acid, or multiple micronutrients with a recommended allowance of 15 vitamins and minerals. Main outcome measures Birth weight, length, and head circumference measured within 72 hours after delivery. Neonatal survival assessed at the six week follow-up visit.

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The prevalence of Internet addiction and influential factors associated with Internet addiction among freshmen college students were investigated in this study. A total of 3557 first-year university students from a university in northwest China were surveyed with Young's 20-item Internet Addiction Test (IAT) questionnaire, a Self-Rating Depression scale (SDS), a Self-Rating Anxiety scale (SAS), and a basic information questionnaire. A rate of 6.44% of the participants surveyed showed Internet addiction. The students with Internet addiction had higher scores of SDS and SAS compared with those without Internet addiction (p < 0.01). There were significant positive correlations between SDS and SAS scores and Internet addiction (p < 0.001). Multiple logistic regression analyses showed that a single-parent family, the age of first exposure to Internet use, the age of the student, city residence, and homesickness were significantly associated with Internet addiction (p < 0.01). Special and closer attention should be paid to these factors, and a risk-focus approach should be implemented in university freshmen with depression, anxiety, and other influential factors associated with Internet addiction at the beginning of their university life to guarantee the fulfillment of their academic study and graduation.