Most chemotherapeutics elevate intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and many can alter redox-homeostasis of cancer cells. It is widely accepted that the anticancer effect of these chemotherapeutics is due to the induction of oxidative stress and ROS-mediated cell injury in cancer. However, various new therapeutic approaches targeting intracellular ROS levels have yielded mixed results. Since it is impossible to quantitatively detect dynamic ROS levels in tumors during and after chemotherapy in clinical settings, it is of increasing interest to apply mathematical modeling techniques to predict ROS levels for understanding complex tumor biology during chemotherapy. This review outlines the current understanding of the role of ROS in cancer cells during carcinogenesis and during chemotherapy, provides a critical analysis of the methods used for quantitative ROS detection and discusses the application of mathematical modeling in predicting treatment responses. Finally, we provide insights on and perspectives for future development of effective therapeutic ROS-inducing anticancer agents or antioxidants for cancer treatment.

Indocyanine green (ICG) is a near-infrared dye that has been used in the clinic for retinal angiography, and defining cardiovascular and liver function for over 50 years. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the incorporation of ICG into nanoparticles (NPs) for cancer theranostic applications. Various types of ICG-incorporated NPs have been developed and strategically functionalised to embrace multiple imaging and therapeutic techniques for cancer diagnosis and treatment. This review systematically summaries the biodistribution of various types of ICG-incorporated NPs for the first time, and discusses the principles, opportunities, limitations, and application of ICG-incorporated NPs for cancer theranostics. We believe that ICG-incorporated NPs would be a promising multifunctional theranostic platform in oncology and facilitate significant advancements in this research-active area.

Liver diseases, particularly viral hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, are common in clinical practice with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many substances for diagnostic imaging and therapy of liver diseases may have either severe adverse effects or insufficient effectiveness in vivo due to the nonspecific uptake. Therefore, by targeting delivery of drugs into the liver or specific liver cells, the 10 drug efficiency may be largely improved. This review summarizes the up-to-date research progress focusing on nanoparticles targeting to the liver for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Targeting strategies, mechanisms of enhanced effects, and clinical applications of nanoparticles are discussed specifically. We believe that new targeting nanotechnology such as nanoprobes for multi-modality imaging and multifunctional nanoparticles would facilitate significant advancements in this research-15 active area in the near future. 65 blood circulation, and multidrug resistance associated with conventional chemotherapeutic agents. 4 In liver specific applications, four main types of nanoparticles have been examined: polymers, lipid-based nanoparticles, metal complex and bio-nanocapsules. 4 The 70 applications of nanotechnology in hepatology have been discussed in several review articles. These papers focused on specific nanoparticles such as nano-vectors, 11 bio-nanocapsules, 12 polymers or lipid-based nanoparticles, 4 and just provided a general description of different drugs targeting to the liver 5, 13 or 75 nanotechnology in liver diseases. 6, 14 Although numerous targeting approaches have been proposed, the effect of nanoparticle properties on their disposal by the body at the organ