Oxidative stress has been implicated in the etiology of age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia). However, the underlying mechanisms by which oxidative stress contributes to sarcopenia have not been thoroughly investigated. To directly examine the role of chronic oxidative stress in vivo, we used a mouse model that lacks the antioxidant enzyme CuZnSOD (Sod1). Sod1(-/-) mice are characterized by high levels of oxidative damage and an acceleration of sarcopenia. In the present study, we demonstrate that muscle atrophy in Sod1(-/-) mice is accompanied by a progressive decline in mitochondrial bioenergetic function and an elevation of mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species. In addition, Sod1(-/-) muscle exhibits a more rapid induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis and loss of myonuclei. Furthermore, aged Sod1(-/-) mice show a striking increase in muscle mitochondrial content near the neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Despite the increase in content, the function of mitochondria is significantly impaired, with increased denervated NMJs and fragmentation of acetylcholine receptors. As a consequence, contractile force in aged Sod1(-/-) muscles is greatly diminished. Collectively, we show that Sod1(-/-) mice display characteristics of normal aging muscle in an accelerated manner and propose that the superoxide-induced NMJ degeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction are potential mechanisms of sarcopenia.

Glutathione peroxidase 4 (Gpx4) is uniquely involved in the detoxification of oxidative damage to membrane lipids. Our previous studies showed that Gpx4 is essential for mouse survival and that Gpx4 deficiency makes cells vulnerable to oxidative injury. In the present study, we generated two lines of transgenic mice overexpressing Gpx4 (Tg(GPX4) mice) using a genomic clone containing the human GPX4 gene. Both lines of Tg-(GPX4) mice, Tg5 and Tg6, had elevated levels of Gpx4 (mRNA and protein) in all tissues investigated, and overexpression of Gpx4 did not cause alterations in activities of glutathione peroxidase 1, catalase, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, and manganese superoxide dismutase. The human GPX4 transgene rescued the lethal phenotype of null mutation of the mouse Gpx4 gene, indicating that the transgene can replace the essential role of mouse Gpx4 in mouse development. Cell death induced by t-butylhydroperoxide and diquat was significantly less in murine embryonic fibroblasts from Tg(GPX4) mice compared with wild type mice. Liver damage and lipid peroxidation induced by diquat were reduced significantly in Tg(GPX4) mice. In addition, diquat-induced apoptosis was decreased in Tg(GPX4) mice, as evidenced by attenuated caspase-3 activation and reduced cytochrome c release from mitochondria. These data demonstrate that Gpx4 plays a role in vivo in the mechanism of apoptosis induced by oxidative stress that most likely occurs through oxidative damage to mitochondrial phospholipids such as cardiolipin.Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 1 such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, are constantly generated in aerobic organisms during normal respiration. In addition, environmental factors (such as ionizing radiation) and pathological compounds (such as ␤-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease) can generate ROS. Although ROS at physiological concentrations may be required for normal cell function, excessive production of ROS can be detrimental to cells, because ROS can cause oxidative damage to lipids, protein, and DNA. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are found predominantly in cellular membranes, are especially vulnerable to attack by ROS because of the high concentration of allylic hydrogens in their structure (1). The resulting lipid hydroperoxides can affect membrane fluidity and the function of membrane proteins. In addition, lipid hydroperoxides can undergo iron-mediated, one-electron reduction and oxygenation to form epoxyallylic peroxyl radicals, which trigger a chain reaction of free radical-mediated lipid peroxidation (2). The end-products of lipid peroxidation are reactive aldehydes such as 4-hydroxyl nonenal and malondialdehyde, many of which are highly toxic to cells (3). In addition, reactive aldehydes generated by lipid peroxidation can attack other cellular targets, such as proteins and DNA, thereby propagating the initial damage in cellular membranes to other macromolecules. Because lipid hydroperoxides formed in membranes are an important component of ROS generation in vivo, their detoxification appears to ...

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Genetic manipulations of Mn superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), SOD2 expression have demonstrated that altering the level of MnSOD activity is critical for cellular function and life span in invertebrates. In mammals, Sod2 homozygous knockout mice die shortly after birth, and alterations of MnSOD levels are correlated with changes in oxidative damage and in the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. In this study, we directly tested the effects of overexpressing MnSOD in young (4-6 months) and old (26-28 months) mice on mitochondrial function, levels of oxidative damage or stress, life span, and end-of-life pathology. Our data show that an approximately twofold overexpression of MnSOD throughout life in mice resulted in decreased lipid peroxidation, increased resistance against paraquat-induced oxidative stress, and decreased age-related decline in mitochondrial ATP production. However, this change in MnSOD expression did not alter either life span or age-related pathology.

Accumulating evidence from animal studies suggest that chronic elevation of circulating intestinal-generated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (i.e., metabolic endotoxemia) could play a role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. However, the effect of LPS in human muscle is unclear. Moreover, it is unknown whether blockade/down regulation of toll-like receptor (TLR)4 can prevent the effect of LPS on insulin action and glucose metabolism in human muscle cells. In the present study we compared plasma LPS concentration in insulin resistant [obese non-diabetic and obese type 2 diabetic (T2DM)] subjects versus lean individuals. In addition, we employed a primary human skeletal muscle cell culture system to investigate the effect of LPS on glucose metabolism and whether these effects are mediated via TLR4. Obese non-diabetic and T2DM subjects had significantly elevated plasma LPS and LPS binding protein (LBP) concentrations. Plasma LPS (r = −0.46, P = 0.005) and LBP (r = −0.49, P = 0.005) concentrations negatively correlated with muscle insulin sensitivity (M). In human myotubes, LPS increased JNK phosphorylation and MCP-1 and IL-6 gene expression. This inflammatory response led to reduced insulin-stimulated IRS-1, Akt and AS160 phosphorylation and impaired glucose transport. Both pharmacologic blockade of TLR4 with TAK-242, and TLR4 gene silencing, suppressed the inflammatory response and insulin resistance caused by LPS in human muscle cells. Taken together, these findings suggest that elevations in plasma LPS concentration found in obese and T2DM subjects could play a role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and that antagonists of TLR4 may improve insulin action in these individuals.

Previously, we demonstrated that mitochondria from denervated muscle exhibited dramatically higher Amplex Red dependent fluorescence (thought to be highly specific for hydrogen peroxide) compared with control muscle mitochondria. We now demonstrate that catalase only partially inhibits the Amplex Red signal in mitochondria from denervated muscle. In contrast, ebselen (a glutathione peroxidase mimetic and inhibitor of fatty acid hydroperoxides) significantly inhibits the Amplex Red signal. This suggests that the majority of the Amplex Red signal in mitochondria from denervated muscle is not derived from hydrogen peroxide. Because Amplex Red cannot react with substrates in the lipid environment, we hypothesize that lipid hydroperoxides formed within the mitochondrial lipid bilayer are released as fatty acid hydroperoxides and react with the Amplex Red probe. We also suggest that the release of fatty acid hydroperoxides from denervated muscle mitochondria may be an important determinant of muscle atrophy. In support of this, muscle atrophy and the Amplex Red signal are inhibited in caloric restricted mice and in transgenic mice that overexpress the lipid hydroperoxide-detoxifying enzyme glutathione peroxidase 4. Finally, we propose that cytosolic phospholipase A 2 may be a potential source of these hydroperoxides.A progressive loss of muscle mass leading to a decline in both strength and function is a normal consequence of biological aging (1, 2). Although several mechanisms have been implicated in age-related muscle atrophy (2-5), the loss of motor neurons or innervation may be one of the most important factors responsible for muscle atrophy observed during aging and in neurodegenerative diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 3 (6 -8). The sciatic nerve transection model of skeletal muscle denervation leads to rapid decline in muscle mass and has been extensively used to investigate the mechanisms of muscle atrophy following the loss of innervation (9 -11). Recent studies using this denervation model in rodents point to a role of mitochondrial oxidative stress in the mechanism of muscle atrophy (11,12). Studies from our laboratory and others point to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction as key players in the mechanisms underlying loss of muscle mass during aging and in neurodegenerative diseases, which are characterized by the loss of muscle mass (12-17). We recently reported a significant elevation in mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) using the Amplex Red probe in various mouse models that exhibit muscle atrophy associated with loss of innervation aging, copper-zinc superoxide dismutase knockout (Sod1 Ϫ/Ϫ ) mice, and the G93A Sod1 mutant mouse model of ALS (13). In addition, we demonstrated that ROS were significantly elevated in muscle mitochondria isolated from mice 7 days after surgical sciatic nerve transection (13). ROS production was positively correlated with the extent of muscle atrophy, indicating that mitochondrial oxidative stress may have a major role in mu...

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Glutathione peroxidase 4 (Gpx4) is an antioxidant defense enzyme that plays an important role in detoxification of oxidative damage to membrane lipids. Because oxidative stress is proposed to play a causal role in aging, we compared the life spans of Gpx4 heterozygous knockout mice (Gpx4(+/-) mice) and wild-type mice (WT mice). To our surprise, the median life span of Gpx4(+/-) mice (1029 days) was significantly longer than that of WT mice (963 days) even though the expression of Gpx4 was reduced approximately 50% in all tissues of Gpx4(+/-) mice. Pathological analysis revealed that Gpx4(+/-) mice showed a delayed occurrence of fatal tumor lymphoma and a reduced severity of glomerulonephritis. Compared to WT mice, Gpx4(+/-) mice showed significantly increased sensitivity to oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Our data indicate that lifelong reduction in Gpx4 increased life span and reduced/retarded age-related pathology most likely through alterations in sensitivity of tissues to apoptosis.