Summary Post-translational modifications offer a dynamic way to regulate protein activity, subcellular localization and stability. Here we estimate the effect of phosphorylation on protein binding and function for different types of complexes from human proteome. We find that phosphorylation sites have a tendency to be located on binding interfaces in heterooligomeric and weak transient homooligomeric complexes. The analysis of molecular mechanisms of phosphorylation shows that phosphorylation may modulate the strength of interactions directly on interfaces and binding hotspots have a tendency to be phosphorylated in heterooligomers. Although majority of phosphosites do not show significant estimated stability differences upon attaching the phosphate groups, for about one third of all complexes it causes relatively large changes in binding energy. We discuss the cases where phosphorylation mediates the complex formation and regulates the function. We show that phosphorylation sites are not only more likely to be evolutionary conserved than surface residues but even more so than other interfacial residues.
Genetic variations resulting in a change of amino acid sequence can have a dramatic effect on stability, hydrogen bond network, conformational dynamics, activity and many other physiologically important properties of proteins. The substitutions of only one residue in a protein sequence, so-called missense mutations, can be related to many pathological conditions, and may influence susceptibility to disease and drug treatment. The plausible effects of missense mutations range from affecting the macromolecular stability to perturbing macromolecular interactions and cellular localization. Here we review the individual cases and genome-wide studies which illustrate the association between missense mutations and diseases. In addition we emphasize that the molecular mechanisms of effects of mutations should be revealed in order to understand the disease origin. Finally we report the current state-of-the-art methodologies which predict the effects of mutations on protein stability, the hydrogen bond network, pH-dependence, conformational dynamics and protein function.
Phosphorylation offers a dynamic way to regulate protein activity and subcellular localization, which is achieved through its reversibility and fast kinetics. Adding or removing a dianionic phosphate group somewhere on a protein often changes the protein’s structural properties, its stability and dynamics. Moreover, the majority of signaling pathways involve an extensive set of protein–protein interactions, and phosphorylation can be used to regulate and modulate protein–protein binding. Losses of phosphorylation sites, as a result of disease mutations, might disrupt protein binding and deregulate signal transduction. In this paper we focus on the effects of phosphorylation on protein stability, dynamics, and binding. We describe several physico-chemical mechanisms of protein regulation through phosphorylation and pay particular attention to phosphorylation in protein complexes and phosphorylation in the context of disorder–order and order–disorder transitions. Finally we assess the role of multiple phosphorylation sites in a protein molecule, their possible cooperativity and function.
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