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Summary:Purpose: The mechanisms of drug resistance in epilepsy are only incompletely understood. According to a current concept, overexpression of drug efflux transporters at the blood-brain barrier may reduce levels of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in epileptogenic brain tissue. Increased expression of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein has been found in brain tissue surgically resected from patients with medically intractable epilepsy, but it is not known whether this leads to decreased extracellular (interstitial) AED concentrations in affected brain regions. This prompted us to measure concentrations of AEDs in the extracellular space of human neocortical tissue by using intraoperative microdialysis (IOMD) in those parts of the brain that had to be removed for therapeutic reasons. For comparison, AED levels were determined in brain tissue, subarachnoid CSF, and serum.Methods: Concentrations of carbamazepine (CBZ), 10-hydroxy-carbazepine (10-OH-CZ, metabolite of oxcarbazepine), lamotrigine (LTG), levetiracetam (LEV), topiramate, or phenytoin were determined by using one to four catheters during IOMD in the medial temporal gyrus. Furthermore, to calculate the individual recovery of every catheter, an in vitro microdialysis was performed with ultrafiltrate of serum concurrently obtained from the respective patient. In addition, AED levels were determined in the resected brain tissue, CSF, and serum of the same patients. Altogether 22 pharmacoresistant epilepsy patients (nine male, 13 female patients; age 15-54 years) with complex partial seizures or secondarily generalized seizures were involved. In a first series, IOMD samples 40 min after beginning of the microdialysis (flow rate, 1 μl/min), and in a second series, continuous measurements 25, 30, 35, and 40 min from the beginning were evaluated (flow rate, 2 μl/min). With in vitro recovery data of the individual catheters, the concentration in the extracellular space (ECS) was estimated.Results: AED concentrations in the ECS of the cortex measured by catheters located at a distance of 0.6 cm differed markedly in some patients, whereas concentrations in the ultrafiltrate of the serum of the respective patients measured with the same catheters varied only slightly. Furthermore, ECS concentrations related to the ultrafiltrate of serum showed considerable interindividual variations. The high intra-and interindividual variation of ECS concentrations is demonstrated by the low correlation between concentrations in ECS and the ultrafiltrate of serum (CBZ, r = 0.41; 10-OH-CZ, r = 0.42; LTG, r = 0.27) in contrast to the high correlation between brain tissue concentration and the ultrafiltrate of serum (CBZ, r = 0.97; 10-OH-CZ, r = 0.88; LTG, r = 0.98) in the same group of patients. When comparing AED concentrations in the ECS with those in the CSF, ECS concentrations were significantly lower for CBZ, 10-OH-CZ, LTG, and LEV.Conclusions: The data demonstrate that AED concentrations show a considerable intraindividual and interindividual variation in the ECS of...

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Spinal A1Rs but not A2aRs play an important role in the maintenance of nonevoked and evoked pain behaviors after an incision. Furthermore, A1R-induced spinal antinociception is mediated by interactions with pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins. In addition, the opening of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K channels but not of calcium-activated potassium channels and voltage-gated Kv1.3 or Kv1.6 channels contribute to the antinociceptive effect of A1R agonists.

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