Carrier-mediated delivery holds great promise for significantly improving the cellular uptake and therefore the therapeutic efficacy of antisense oligonucleotides in vivo. A multivalent carbohydrate recognition motif for the asialoglycoprotein receptor has been designed for tissue- and cell-specific delivery of antisense drugs to parenchymal liver cells. To combine low molecular weight with high receptor affinity, the synthetic ligand contains three galactosyl residues attached to a cholane scaffold via epsilon-aminocapramide linkers. Three-dimensional structural calculations indicate that this unique design provides proper spacing and orientation of the three galactosyl residues to accomplish high affinity binding to the receptor. Covalent conjugation of the bulky carbohydrate cluster to oligonucleotides has been achieved by solid-phase synthesis using low-loaded macroporous resins and optimized synthesis protocols.

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Based on the application of cationic polystyrene nanoparticles, a novel method for solid-phase extraction of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides from human plasma has been developed. A high binding affinity, which is required for an effective isolation out of complex mixtures, is mediated by hydrophobic and multiple electrostatic interactions between the oligonucleotides and the nanoparticles. The principle of the method is based on a pH-controlled adsorption/desorption mechanism. Analysis of the extracted samples was performed by capillary gel electrophoresis. Extraction conditions were optimized, providing the isolation of oligonucleotides (> or = 10 nucleotide units) in high yields and purity even at concentrations in the low-nanomolar range (down to 5 nM). The low salt contamination of the samples allows their direct analysis by electrospray mass spectrometry. The combined linearity and accuracy of the assay together with absolute recovery rates in the range of 60-90% indicate that the developed solid-phase extraction method is generally applicable to quantitation of oligonucleotides in human plasma. Further improvement was achieved with an optimized carrier system of 2-fold enlarged particles which reduces the time consumption of the extraction procedure to approximately 30 min.

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Current strategies for brain diseases are mostly symptomatic and noncurative. Nanotechnology has the potential to facilitate the transport of drugs across the blood-brain barrier and to enhance their pharmacokinetic profile. However, to reach clinical application, an understanding of nanoneurotoxicity in terms of oxidative stress and inflammation is required. Emerging evidence has also shown that nanoparticles have the ability to alter autophagy, which can induce inflammation and oxidative stress, or vice versa. These effects may increase neurodegenerative processes damage, but on the other hand, they may have benefits for brain cancer therapies. In this review, we emphasize how nanomaterials may induce neurotoxic effects focusing on neurodegeneration, and how these effects could be exploited toward brain cancer treatment.