The world's tropical reef ecosystems, and the people who depend on them, are increasingly 60 impacted by climate change [1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Reef, as well as the potential influence of water quality and fishing pressure on the severity of 71 bleaching. 72The geographic footprints of mass bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef have varied 73 strikingly during three major events in 1998 , 2002 and 2016). In 1998, bleaching was 74 primarily coastal and most severe in the central and southern regions. In 2002, bleaching was 75 more widespread, and affected offshore reefs in the central region that had escaped in 1998 8 . 76In 2016, bleaching was even more extensive and much more severe, especially in the 77 northern, and to a lesser extent the central regions, where many coastal, mid-shelf and 78 offshore reefs were affected (Fig. 1a, b). In 2016, the proportion of reefs experiencing 79 extreme bleaching (>60% of corals bleached) was over four times higher compared to 1998 80 or 2002 (Fig. 1f) The severity and distinctive geographic footprints of bleaching in each of the three 88 years can be explained by differences in the magnitude and spatial distribution of sea-surface 89 temperature anomalies (Fig. 1a, b 102The geographic pattern of bleaching also demonstrates how marine heatwaves can be (Fig. 2a) (Fig. 1g). largely escaped bleaching in the two earlier events (Fig. 1a). Thirty-five percent of the reefs (Fig. 1b, e). We conclude that the overlap of disparate geographic bleaching at the scale of both individual reefs and the entire Great Barrier Reef (Fig. 1a, b). 134We found a similar strong relationship between the amount of bleaching measured 135 underwater, and the satellite-based estimates of heat exposure on individual reefs (Fig. 3). 136Low levels of bleaching was observed at some locations when DHW values were only 2-3 137 o C-weeks. Typically, 30-40% of corals bleached on reefs exposed to 4 o C-weeks, whereas an 138 average of 70-90% of corals bleached on reefs that experience 8 o C-weeks or more (Fig. 3). 139Resistance and adaptation to bleaching 140 Once we account for the amount of heat stress experienced on each reef, adding 141 chlorophyll-a, a proxy for water quality, to our statistical model yielded no support for the 142 hypothesis that good water quality confers resistance to bleaching 13 . Rather, the estimated 143 effect of chlorophyll-a was to significantly reduce the DHW threshold for bleaching 144 (Extended Data Table 1). However, despite the statistical significance, the effect in real terms 145 beyond heat stress alone is very small (Extended Data Fig. 1). Similarly, we found no effect 146 of the level of protection (in fished or protected zones) on bleaching (P > 0.1: Extended Data 147 Table 1). These results are consistent with the broad-scale pattern of severe bleaching in the 148 northern Great Barrier Reef, which affected hundreds of reefs across inshore-offshore 149 gradients in water quality, and regardless of their zoning (protection) status (Fig. 1a, b). 150Simila...

Coral reefs support immense biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services to many millions of people. Yet reefs are degrading rapidly in response to numerous anthropogenic drivers. In the coming centuries, reefs will run the gauntlet of climate change, and rising temperatures will transform them into new configurations, unlike anything observed previously by humans. Returning reefs to past configurations is no longer an option. Instead, the global challenge is to steer reefs through the Anthropocene era in a way that maintains their biological functions. Successful navigation of this transition will require radical changes in the science, management and governance of coral reefs.