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ObjectivesThe emergence of HIV drug resistance is a crucial issue in Africa, where second-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) is limited, expensive and complex. We assessed the association between adherence patterns and resistance emergence over time, using an adherence measure that distinguishes low adherence from treatment interruptions, in rural Cameroon. MethodsWe performed a cohort study among patients receiving nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)-based ART in nine district hospitals, using data from the Stratall trial (2006−2010). Genotypic mutations associated with antiretroviral drug resistance were assessed when 6-monthly HIV viral loads were > 5000 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL. ART adherence data were collected using face-to-face questionnaires. Combined indicators of early (1−3 months) and late (6 months to t − 1; t is the time point when the resistance had been detected) adherence were constructed. Multivariate logistic regression and Cox models were used to assess the association between adherence patterns and early (at 6 months) and late (after 6 months) resistance emergence, respectively. ResultsAmong 456 participants (71% women; median age 37 years), 45 developed HIV drug resistance (18 early and 27 late). Early low adherence (< 80%) and treatment interruptions (> 2 days) were associated with early resistance [adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) 8.51 (1.30-55.61) and 5.25 (1.45-18.95), respectively]. Early treatment interruptions were also associated with late resistance [adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) 3.72 (1.27-10.92)]. ConclusionsThe emergence of HIV drug resistance on first-line NNRTI-based regimens was associated with different patterns of adherence over time. Ensuring optimal early adherence through specific interventions, adequate management of drug stocks, and viral load monitoring is a clinical and public health priority in Africa. IntroductionIn resource-limited countries, the most frequently prescribed first-line antiretroviral regimens for HIV-infected patients include two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and one nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) [1]. Lamivudine (an NTRI), nevirapine and efavirenz (both NNRTIs) are most commonly used because of their effectiveness and their availability as components of generic, low-cost, easy-to-use, fixed-dose combinations [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. However, the drawback of these drugs is a low genetic barrier to resistance [13]. Consequently, patients who take them are more likely to develop HIV drug resistance, which in turn limits the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy (ART).In sub-Saharan Africa, the emergence of HIV drug resistance is a serious issue, for both the health system and for the individual. Resistance emergence during first-line therapy increases the risk of HIV-related morbidity and mortality, and of HIV transmission (including transmission of drug-resistant viruses) [14]. Moreover, second-line treatment options are limited and involve considerabl...

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Our study provides important evidence that African men are more vulnerable to ART failure than women and that the male vulnerability extends beyond adherence issues. Additional studies are needed to determine the causes for this vulnerability to optimize HIV care. However, personalized adherence support remains crucial.

BackgroundIn Senegal in 2015, an estimated 4800 children were living with HIV, with 1200 receiving ARV treatment, of whom half had follow-up care in decentralized sites outside Dakar.However, until now no studies have determined the efficacy of pediatric treatment in decentralized settings, even though the emergence of viral resistance, particularly among children in Africa, is a well-known phenomenon. This study aimed to assess the virological status of HIV-infected children in all decentralized facilities to help improve access to quality care.MethodsA cross-sectional epidemiological and virological study was conducted in all of Senegal’s regions, except Dakar, between March and June 2015 and sought to include all HIV-infected children and adolescents (0–19 years), treated or not with ARVs.Socio-demographic and clinical data and a blood sample on blotting paper were collected for children from treatment sites. Samples were routed on public transportation, assisted by a network of community health workers. A viral load (VL) assay was performed for each child, followed by genotyping when it exceeded 1000 copies/mL (3 log10).ResultsOf the 851 identified children, 666 (78%) were enrolled in the study. Half of the children were girls, and the average age was 8 years (6 months–19 years). Most of the children (96.7%) were infected with HIV-1, and 90% were treated with ART, primarily with AZT + 3TC + NVP/EFV therapeutic regimen. The median duration of time on ART was 21 months (1–129). VL was measured for 2% of children before this study. Almost two-thirds (64%) of the children are experiencing virological failure. Among them, there was resistance to at least one drug for 86.5% of cases. Also, 25% children presented resistance to one drug and 40% to two out of three. For nearly one-third of the children presenting resistance, none of the three drugs of the treatment was active. Factors associated with virological failure were male sex, follow-up by a generalist rather than a specialist, and treatment interruptions.ConclusionsWe observed a high level of virological failure and a high percentage of viral resistance among children receiving health care in decentralized facilities in Senegal.