Of the 10,272 currently recognized reptile species, the trade of fewer than 8% are regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the European Wildlife Trade Regulations (EWTR). However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has assessed 45% of the world's reptile species and determined that at least 1390 species are threatened by “biological resource use”. Of these, 355 species are intentionally targeted by collectors, including 194 non-CITES-listed species. Herein we review the global reptile pet trade, its impacts, and its contribution to the over-harvesting of species and populations, in light of current international law. Findings are based on an examination of relevant professional observations, online sources, and literature (e.g., applicable policies, taxonomy [reptile database], trade statistics [EUROSTAT], and conservation status [IUCN Red List]). Case studies are presented from the following countries and regions: Australia, Central America, China, Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Germany, Europe, India, Indonesia (Kalimantan), Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Western Africa, and Western Asia. The European Union (EU) plays a major role in reptile trade. Between 2004 and 2014 (the period under study), the EU member states officially reported the import of 20,788,747 live reptiles. This review suggests that illegal trade activities involve species regulated under CITES, as well as species that are not CITES-regulated but nationally protected in their country of origin and often openly offered for sale in the EU. Further, these case studies demonstrate that regulations and enforcement in several countries are inadequate to prevent the overexploitation of species and to halt illegal trade activities. (Résumé d'auteur
Aim We looked at the biogeographical patterns of Oniscidean fauna from the small islands of the Mediterranean Sea in order to investigate the species-area relationship and to test for area-range effects.Location The Mediterranean Sea.Methods We compiled from the literature a data set of 176 species of Oniscidea (terrestrial isopods) distributed over 124 Mediterranean islands. Jaccard's index was used as input for a UPGMA cluster analysis. The species-area relationship was investigated by applying linear, semi-logarithmic, logarithmic and sigmoid models. We also investigated a possible 'small island effect' (SIE) by performing breakpoint regression. We used a cumulative and a sliding-window approach to evaluate scale-dependent area-range effects on the log S/log A regression parameters.Results Based on similarity indexes, results indicated that small islands of the Mediterranean Sea can be divided into two major groups: eastern and western. In general, islands from eastern archipelagos were linked together at similarity values higher than those observed for western Mediterranean islands. This is consistent with a more even distribution of species in the eastern Mediterranean islands. Separate archipelagos in the western Mediterranean could be discriminated, with the exception of islets, which tended to group together at the lowest similarity values regardless of the archipelago to which they belong. Islets were characterized by a few common species with large ranges. The species-area logarithmic model did not always provide the best fit. Most continental archipelagos showed very similar intercepts, higher than the intercept for the Canary island oceanic archipelago. Sigmoid regression returned convex curves. Evidence for a SIE was found, whereas area-range effects that are dependent on larger scale analyses were not unambiguously supported.Main conclusions The Oniscidea fauna from small islands of the Mediterranean Sea is highly structured, with major and minor geographical patterns being identifiable. Some but not all of the biogeographical complexity can be explained by interpreting the different shapes of species-area curves. Despite its flexibility, the sigmoid model tested did not always provide the best fit. Moreover, when the model did provide a good fit the curves looked convex, not sigmoid. We found evidence for a SIE, and minor support for scale-dependent area-range effects.
How often insecticide resistance mutations arise in natural insect populations is a fundamental question for understanding the evolution of resistance and also for modeling its spread. Moreover, the development of resistance is regarded as a favored model to study the molecular evolution of adaptive traits. In the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae two point mutations (L1014F and L1014S) in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, that confer knockdown resistance (kdr) to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides, have been described. In order to determine whether resistance alleles result from single or multiple mutation events, genotyping of the kdr locus and partial sequencing of the upstream intron-1 was performed on a total of 288 A. gambiae S-form collected from 28 localities in 15 countries. Knockdown resistance alleles were found to be widespread in West Africa with co-occurrence of both 1014S and 1014F in West-Central localities. Differences in intron-1 haplotype composition suggest that kdr alleles may have arisen from at least four independent mutation events. Neutrality tests provided evidence for a selective sweep acting on this genomic region, particularly in West Africa. The frequency and distribution of these kdr haplotypes varied geographically, being influenced by an interplay between different mutational occurrences, gene flow and local selection. This has important practical implications for the management and sustainability of malaria vector control programs.
We examined the phylogeography and history of giant Galápagos tortoise populations based on mitochondrial DNA sequence data from 161 individuals from 21 sampling sites representing the 11 currently recognized extant taxa. Molecular clock and geological considerations indicate a founding of the monophyletic Galápagos lineage around 2-3 million years ago, which would allow for all the diversification to have occurred on extant islands. Founding events generally occurred from geologically older to younger islands with some islands colonized more than once. Six of the 11 named taxa can be associated with monophyletic maternal lineages. One, Geochelone porteri on Santa Cruz Island, consists of two distinct populations connected by the deepest node in the archipelago-wide phylogeny, whereas tortoises in northwest Santa Cruz are closely related to those on adjacent Pinzó n Island. Volcan Wolf, the northernmost volcano of Isabela Island, consists of both a unique set of maternal lineages and recent migrants from other islands, indicating multiple colonizations possibly due to human transport or multiple colonization and partial elimination through competition. These genetic findings are consistent with the mixed morphology of tortoises on this volcano. No clear genetic differentiation between two taxa on the two southernmost volcanoes of Isabela was evident. Extinction of crucial populations by human activities confounds whether domed versus saddleback carapaces of different populations are mono-or polyphyletic. Our findings revealed a complex phylogeography and history for this tortoise radiation within an insular environment and have implications for efforts to conserve these endangered biological treasures.
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