The influence of the synthesis procedure of supported Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNP) on their activity and stability as a Fenton-type catalyst is studied.
Biomass is often referred to as a carbon–neutral energy source, and it has a role in reducing fossil fuel depletion. In addition, biomass can be converted efficiently into various forms of biofuels. The biomass conversion processes involve several thermochemical, biochemical, and hydrothermal methods for biomass treatment integration. The most common conversion routes to produce biofuels include pyrolysis and gasification processes. On the other hand, supercritical water gasification (SCWG) and hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) are best suitable for converting biomass and waste with high moisture content. Despite promising efficiencies, SCWG and HTL processes introduce operational issues as obstacles to the industrialization of these technologies. The issues include process safety aspects due to operation conditions, plugging due to solid deposition, corrosion, pumpability of feedstock, catalyst sintering and deactivation, and high production costs. The methods to address these issues include various reactor configurations to avoid plugging and optimizing process conditions to minimize other issues. However, there are only a few studies investigating the operational issues as the main scope, and reviews are seldomly available in this regard. Therefore, further research is required to address operational problems. This study reviews the main operational problems in SCWG and HTL. The objective of this study is to enhance the industrialization of these processes by investigating the operational issues and the potential solutions, i.e., contributing to the elimination of the obstacles. A comprehensive study on the operational issues provides a holistic overview of the biomass conversion technologies and biorefinery concepts to promote the industrialization of SCWG and HTL.
Berry fruits are well recognized for health-promoting constituents due to their properties of free radical scavengers which confer antioxidant activity against cellular oxidation reactions. Elderberry fruit contains one of the highest levels of anthocyanins. The objective of this work was to evaluate the storage stability of total monomeric anthocyanins, cyanidin-3-glucoside (one of two major anthocyanins in elderberry), and color parameters in freeze-dried elderberry encapsulated with a low proportion of different carriers (Maltodextrin, Capsul™, Promitor ™, and κ-carrageenan). Encapsulated samples were stored at two different water activities (aw) 0.10–0.20 and 0.43 at 38 ℃ for 90 days and evaluated for the content of monomeric anthocyanins, cyanidin-3-glucoside, color parameters, and physical characteristics. Freeze-dried powders remained free-flowing during storage at 38 ℃ with aw 0.12–0.20, but agglomeration occurred at aw = 0.43. Total anthocyanins and color parameter a* (redness) remained unchanged during storage at the lower aw. Glass transition temperatures (Tg) were determined and mostly correlated with observed physical phenomena. The powders had a very high total monomeric anthocyanin contents as high as 13 mg/g (cyanidin-3-glucoside). The addition of encapsulants in low proportions allowed the researchers to obtain elderberry powders with a very high concentration of total monomeric anthocyanins. aw plays a key role in all stability parameters studied.
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