SummaryTobacco smoke may be one of the most common sources of cadmium (Cd) in the general population, particularly in the rising population of smokers in developing countries. Although a relationship between both cigarette smoking and environmental Cd contamination with prostate cancer exist, the mechanisms are unclear. Most prospective cohort studies found a positive association between current smoking and a fatal cancer of the prostate. We investigated the interaction between zinc and cadmium and the potential risk of prostate cancer in smokers. Serum cadmium level was significantly (P<0.001) higher in smokers compared with non-smokers, the level in smokers was three-fold that in non-smokers. In contrast zinc was significantly (P<0.001) reduced in smokers compared with non-smokers. Unlike Zn, Cu was significantly (P<0.05) higher in smokers than in nonsmokers. Iron (Fe) though higher in smokers was not significantly different. Zinc: cadmium ratio was very significantly (P<0.001) reduced, implying high cadmium: zinc ratio. This ratio was 4.5-fold the level in nonsmokers. Total protein, albumin and total globulin levels were all significantly (P<0.001) reduced in smokers compared with non-smokers respectively. Potassium (K + ) was significantly (P<0.05) higher in smokers than in non-smokers. Magnesium (Mg) was significantly (p<0.01) reduced in smokers compared to non-smokers. Altered Zn status culminating in high Cd:Zn ratio appears the central factor in smokers; leading to oxidative stress, DNA damage, mutation, impaired DNA repair, P 53 expression, angiogenic effect of Cu and impaired vitamin A metabolism. These converge in the risk of the carcinogenic process, suggesting high Cd: Zn ratio as the critical determinant of the risk of prostate cancer in smokers and possibly a biomarker of susceptibility to this environmental disease.

ABSTRACT

Cadmium (Cd) has recently emerged as a major concern not only in environmental toxicology but also in metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus and its complications. Conflicting data aside, these studies have not been examined in a clinical population undergoing management as well as possible modulation by the prominent metabolic antagonist of Cd such as zinc (Zn). This study examined the relationship between cadmium levels, glycemic control, and renal pathology in established type II diabetic patients with focus on populations exposed to modern environmental health hazards (MEHHs). Sixty-five participants, consisting of 45 type-2 diabetics and 20 non-diabetics were enrolled for the study, mean age 61.51 ± 5.27 years. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) was used to classify them into three sub-groups: (A) good glycemic control (44.4%), (B) fair glycemic control (24.4%), and (C) poor glycemic control (31.1%). Plasma levels of glucose, Cd, Zn, HbA1c, creatinine, urinary creatinine, microalbuminuria, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were determined in all participants using standard methods. Fasting plasma glucose was higher in diabetics than in non-diabetics (p = 0.000) as well as Zn level, though not significantly. Interestingly, Cd level, Cd/Zn ratio, and urinary creatinine were significantly lower in diabetics than in non-diabetics. The group with poor glycemic control (C) had significantly higher Cd level compared to the one with good glycemic control (group A). The renal function revealed that microalbuminuria and urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (UACR) was significantly higher in diabetics than in non-diabetics, while eGFR was found to be similar in both diabetics and non-diabetics. UACR inversely correlated with Cd level, while plasma creatinine level positively correlated with Cd but not significantly. Correlation between Cd and HbA1c revealed non-significant inverse correlation (r = −0.007; p > 0.05), while Zn showed a significant inverse correlation with Cd (r = −0.317; p < 0.014). The lower Cd level in diabetics compared to non-diabetics probably reflects the modulating effect of Zn in treated diabetics given nutritional education in addition to their regular regime, including good sources of Zn. The renal insufficiency with increasing Cd level may suggest that the progression of renal impairment may not be responsive to the putative modulating effect of Zn.

No abstract

Micronutrients play fundamental roles in the aetiology, prognosis and resistance to diseases, as well as the protection against free radicals damage. These fundamental roles have made micronutrients to become an integral part of health management and physical activity. The understanding of healthcare professionals (HCP) of these benefits appears limited. This study therefore examined Health care p ro fession als in Ibadan to ascertain their awareness of the use micronutrients in disease prevention and physical activity. A descriptive survey design was used for the study; 130 randomly selected HCP took part in the study. The HCP are Doctors, Nurses, Pharmacists, Physiotherapists and Medical Laboratory Scientists. The result revealed that HCP were aware of: micronutrients use for disease prevention; X 2 observed = 49.08; table value = 18.55 and df = 12; p < 0.05 (significant); micronutrients use for physical activity: X 2 observed = 220.34; table value = 18.55 and df= 12; p < 0.05 (significant). HCP in Ibadan appear to have adequate understanding of micronutrient use for disease prevention and physical activity. However, they should continue to go for update courses in nutrition and disease management to keep abreast of knowledge.