Maintaining cellular Na(+)/K(+) homeostasis is pivotal for plant survival in saline environments. However, knowledge about the molecular regulatory mechanisms of Na(+)/K(+) homeostasis in plants under salt stress is largely lacking. In this report, the Arabidopsis double mutants atrbohD1/F1 and atrbohD2/F2, in which the AtrbohD and AtrbohF genes are disrupted and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is pronouncedly inhibited, were found to be much more sensitive to NaCl treatments than wild-type (WT) and the single null mutant atrbohD1 and atrbohF1 plants. Furthermore, the two double mutant seedlings had significantly higher Na(+) contents, lower K(+) contents, and resultant greater Na(+)/K(+) ratios than the WT, atrbohD1, and atrbohF1 under salt stress. Exogenous H(2)O(2) can partially reverse the increased effects of NaCl on Na(+)/K(+) ratios in the double mutant plants. Pre-treatments with diphenylene iodonium chloride, a widely used inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, clearly enhanced the Na(+)/K(+) ratios in WT seedlings under salt stress. Moreover, NaCl-inhibited inward K(+) currents were arrested, and NaCl-promoted increases in cytosolic Ca(2+) and plasma membrane Ca(2+) influx currents were markedly attenuated in atrbohD1/F1 plants. No significant differences in the sensitivity to osmotic or oxidative stress among the WT, atrbohD1, atrbohF1, atrbohD1/F1, and atrbohD2/F2 were observed. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that ROS produced by both AtrbohD and AtrbohF function as signal molecules to regulate Na(+)/K(+) homeostasis, thus improving the salt tolerance of Arabidopsis.

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Phytohormone salicylic acid (SA) plays important roles in plant responses to environmental stress. However, knowledge about the molecular mechanisms for SA affecting the stomatal movements is limited. In this paper, we demonstrated that exogenous SA significantly induced stomatal closure and nitric oxide (NO) generation in Arabidopsis guard cells based on genetic and physiological data. These effects were significantly inhibited by the NO scavenger c-PTIO, NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-NAME or nitrate reductase suppressor tungstate respectively, implying that NOS and nitrate reductase (NR) participate in SA-evoked stomatal closing. Furthermore, the effects of SA promotion of stomatal closure and NO synthesis are significantly suppressed in NR single mutants of nia1, nia2 or double mutant nia1/nia2, compared with the wild type plants. This suggests that both Nia1 and Nia2 are involved in SA-stimulated stomatal closure. In addition, pharmacological experiments showed that protein kinases, cGMP and cADPR are involved in SA-mediated NO accumulation and stomatal closure induced by SA in Arabidopsis.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) originating from the NADPH oxidases AtrbohD and AtrbohF play an important role in abscisic acid (ABA)-inhibited primary root growth in Arabidopsis. However, the mechanisms underlying this process remain elusive. In this study, the double mutant atrbohD1/F1 and atrbohD2/F2, in which both AtrbohD and AtrbohF were disrupted, were less sensitive to ABA suppression of root cell elongation than wild-type (WT) plants. Furthermore, the double mutants showed impaired ABA responses in roots, including ROS generation, cytosolic Ca(2+) increases, and activation of plasma membrane Ca(2+)-permeable channels compared with WT. Exogenous H2O2 can activate the Ca(2+) currents in roots of atrbohD1/F1. In addition, exogenous application of the auxin transport inhibitor naphthylphthalamic acid effectively promoted ABA inhibition of root growth of the mutants relative to that of WT. The ABA-induced decreases in auxin sensitivity of the root tips were more pronounced in WT than in atrbohD1/F1. These findings suggest that both AtrbohD and AtrbohF are essential for ABA-promoted ROS production in roots. ROS activate Ca(2+) signalling and reduce auxin sensitivity of roots, thus positively regulating ABA-inhibited primary root growth in Arabidopsis.