Since Johnson's experimental observations of thermal noise in 1927, and Nyquist's explanation of the phenomenon shortly afterwards in 1928, thermal noise has attracted interest as a means of measuring temperature. The independence of the thermal noise from the material nature of the sensor makes it particularly attractive for metrological applications. However, the noise signals are extremely small and some ingenuity is required to make accurate measurements. This paper reviews the foundations of Johnson noise thermometry and the various techniques that have been employed to measure temperature via Johnson noise. Emphasis is placed on key developments in noise thermometers for metrological applications. The review includes the current activities of teams involved in noise thermometry research.

We have developed a system for the simultaneous measurement of the electrical conductivity and the Seebeck coefficient for thermoelectric samples in the temperature region of 300 K to 1000 K. The system features flexibility in sample dimensions and easy sample exchange. In order to verify the accuracy of the setup we have referenced our system against the NIST standard reference material 3451 and other setups and can show good agreement. The developed system has been used in the search for a possible high temperature Seebeck standard material. FeSi2 emerges as a possible candidate as this material combines properties typical for thermoelectric materials with large scale fabrication, good spatial homogeneity, and thermal stability up to 1000 K.

A vertical cobalt-carbon (Co-C) eutectic fixed point cell was constructed at PTB to demonstrate its use for improvement of the calibration of noble-metal thermocouples at temperatures above 1100 ˚C. The melting and freezing temperatures of the Co-C eutectic were measured in different high-temperature furnaces at PTB and INMETRO (Brazil) to show its stability by using a Pt/Pd thermocouple. The reproducibility of all measured electromotive forces at the inflection points of the melting curves amounts to a value of about 0.06 ˚C. No drift in the melting temperature was observed. Therefore, the Co-C eutectic fixed point cell can be used as an adequate transfer standard for dissemination of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) in the temperature range above the freezing point of copper.

LNE, NPL, and PTB decided in 2005 to join their research efforts in the framework of Euromet Project 857 with the aim of reducing the calibration uncertainty of noble metal and other high-temperature thermocouples by at least a factor of two. This ambitious target will be met through the development and implementation of robust high-temperature fixed points based on metal-carbon eutectic technology. The Euromet project is structured around five work packages and ensures good and efficient cooperation between the partners to meet the objectives within the project timeframe of four years. Furthermore, a formal cooperative research agreement has been established with the National Metrology Institute of Japan (NMIJ) to demonstrate, on a worldwide basis, that this new method is a significant improvement over current calibration methods. In summary, the project consists of (a) the development of sets of cells at the cobalt-carbon eutectic point (1,324 • C) and palladium-carbon eutectic point (1,492 • C) and (b) the construction of platinum/palladium (Pt/Pd) thermocouples carefully stabilized for use to these temperatures. Supplementary research to be undertaken as part of this project is the improvement of fixed-point construction and realization capabilities through high-temperature furnaces with low thermal gradients. This paper describes the European project and gives an overview of current progress.

An intercomparison of the melting temperatures of four Co-C eutectic fixed-point cells by using two Pt/Pd thermocouples was performed. The cells are usable for the calibration of thermocouples and were constructed in the participating laboratories of PTB, NPL, LNE and NMIJ/AIST. The measurements were performed in four different high-temperature furnaces but by applying the same measurement procedure. In spite of slightly different cell designs and different material sources the melting temperatures of the investigated Co-C cells agreed very well within their expanded uncertainties of k = 2. Furthermore, the mean maximum difference of the melting temperatures of the four Co-C cells measured in different laboratories by using different furnaces and Pt/Pd thermocouples was found to be of the order of 85 mK (2 µV).