We aimed to assess whether modulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLFPC) with noninvasive brain stimulation, namely transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), modifies food craving in healthy subjects. We performed a randomized sham-controlled cross-over study in which 23 subjects received sham and active tDCS (anode left/cathode right and anode right/ cathode left) of the DLPFC. Subjects were exposed to food and also watched a movie of food associated with strong craving. Desire for food consumption was evaluated by visual analogue scales (VAS) and food consumption before and after treatment. In addition we measured visual attention to food using an eye tracking system. Craving for viewed foods as indexed by VAS was reduced by anode right/cathode left tDCS. After sham stimulation, exposure to real food or foodrelated movie increased craving; whereas after anode left/cathode right tDCS, the food-related stimuli did not increase craving levels, as revealed by the VAS scale. Moreover, compared with sham stimulation, subjects fixated food-related pictures less frequently after anode right/cathode left tDCS and consumed less food after both active stimulation conditions. These changes were not related to mood changes after any type of tDCS treatment. The effects of tDCS on food craving might be related to a modulation of neural circuits associated with reward and decisionmaking.

The development of non-invasive techniques of cortical stimulation, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), has opened new potential avenues for the treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases. We hypothesized that an increase in the activity in the motor cortex by cortical stimulation would increase its inhibitory influence on spinal excitability through the corticospinal tract and, thus, reduce the hyperactivity of the gamma and alpha neurons, improving spasticity. Seventeen participants (eight males, nine females; mean age 9y 1mo [SD 3y 2mo]) with cerebral palsy and spastic quadriplegia were randomized to receive sham, active 1Hz, or active 5Hz repetitive TMS of the primary motor cortex. Stimulation was applied for 5 consecutive days (90% of motor threshold). The results showed that there was a significant reduction of spasticity after 5Hz, but not sham or 1Hz, stimulation as indexed by the degree of passive movement; however this was not evident when using the Ashworth scale, although a trend for improvement was seen for elbow movement. The safety evaluation showed that stimulation with either 1Hz or 5Hz did not result in any adverse events as compared with sham stimulation. Results of this trial provide initial evidence to support further trials exploring the use of cortical stimulation in the treatment of spasticity. Spasticity is a common symptom in neurological disorders. One of the causes of spasticity is motor cortex damage that leads to a decrease in the cortical input to the corticospinal tract, resulting in a disinhibition of spinal, segmental excitabili-ty and an increase in the muscle tone. 1 This increase in muscle tone is marked by a velocity-dependent enhancement of the stretch reflex. 2-4 The role of the motor cortex in the development of spastici-ty has been extensively demonstrated in primate studies. Specifically, ablation of Brodmann's area 4 in macaque monkeys results in persistent spasticity in addition to partial motor impairment, 5 and bilateral removal of Brodmann's areas 4, 6, and 8, as well as the posterior parietal cortex (area 7) in infant monkeys leads to development of spastic paraplegia. 6 In humans, patients undergoing surgery for intractable epilepsy revealed the development of spasticity in cases of extensive motor or premotor ablations. 7 Cerebral palsy (CP) is a common cause of spasticity. CP results from a permanent static lesion of the cerebral motor cortex that occurs before, at, or within 2 years of birth. 8 The loss of descending inhibitory input through corticospinal tracts results in an increase in the excitability of gamma and alpha neurons, resulting in spasticity. 9 Spasticity is an important contributor to the quality of life of patients with CP as it leads to musculoskeletal complications such as contractures, pain, and subluxation. 10 Furthermore, the elimination of spasticity brings motor function improvement for these patients. 10 Although many therapies to reduce and control spasticity are available, they are associated with several disadvantages, such ...

Habit learning, action selection and performance are modulated by the basal ganglia, a collection of groups of neurons located below the cerebral cortex in the brain. In autism, there is emerging evidence that parts of the basal ganglia are structurally and functionally altered disrupting normal information flow. The basal ganglia through its interconnected circuits with the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum can potentially impact various motor and cognitive functions in the autism brain.

Describing students with disabilities as presenting 'challenging behaviour' is common in US schools. The purpose of this paper is to reveal the discourse utilised by teachers in order to understand their beliefs and practices surrounding young students considered to present challenging behaviour. This study examines teachers' language in four ways: which discourses they draw from, the consequences of engaging in the discourse on practice, what maintains the use of such discourse and finally the possibilities for change. The critical discourse analysis unpacked that teachers begin labelling the students as challenging, not the behaviour. Consequences of this thinking emerged as teachers excluded the students, or what they consider 'the problems' from the classroom. Exclusion was found to be the 'necessary' response when control is prioritised in the classroom. In sum, the discourse of control is available for shaping how teachers understand and support students. Developing a relationship with students empowers teachers to see past the labels, the control discourse, and truly support students in inclusive classrooms. Finally, implications for practice are shared to improve the experience of inclusive education for both student and teacher.

O desenvolvimento da Internet possibilitou criar instrumentos computadorizados para avaliação psicológica no contexto escolar, porém é necessário verificar a eficácia dessas tecnologias. Este estudo avaliou a viabilidade de aplicar via Internet o Teste de Competência de Leitura Silenciosa On-line para avaliar a habilidade de decisão lexical. Participaram 415 crianças de Ensinos Infantil (EI) e Fundamental (EF), com idade média de 8,24 anos (DP=1,23). O teste foi aplicado via Internet e os dados armazenados automaticamente. Resultados mostram que a pontuação aumentou em função da série, com diferenças significativas entre séries sucessivas, exceto entre 3a e 4a série. Análise dos erros em função do tipo de itens revelou que crianças de EI3 apresentaram dificuldade de acesso ao léxico ortográfico. O padrão de respostas na aplicação via Internet foi semelhante ao da versão tradicional. Tais resultados mostram que é viável usar a Internet para coletar dados de testes baseados em constructos teóricos.