Viruses routinely employ strategies to prevent the activation of innate immune signalling in infected cells. RSV is no exception, encoding two accessory proteins (NS1 and NS2) which are well established to block Interferon signalling. However, RSV-encoded mechanisms for inhibiting NF-κB signalling are less well characterised. In this study we identified RSV-mediated antagonism of this pathway, independent of the NS1 and NS2 proteins, and indeed distinct from other known viral mechanisms of NF-κB inhibition. In both human and bovine RSV infected cells we demonstrated that the P65 subunit of NF-κB is rerouted to perinuclear puncta in the cytoplasm, puncta which are synonymous with viral inclusion bodies (IBs), the site for viral RNA replication. Captured P65 was unable to translocate to the nucleus or transactivate a NF-κB reporter following TNF-α stimulation, confirming the immune-antagonistic nature of this sequestration. Subsequently, we used correlative light electron microscopy (CLEM) to colocalise RSV N protein and P65 within bRSV IBs; granular, membraneless regions of cytoplasm with liquid organelle-like properties. Additional characterisation of bRSV IBs indicated that although they are likely formed by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), they have a differential sensitivity to hypotonic shock proportional to their size. Together, these data identify a novel mechanism for viral antagonism of innate immune signalling which relies on sequestration of the NF-κB subunit p65 to a biomolecular condensate – a mechanism conserved across the Orthopneumovirus genus and not host-cell specific. More generally they provide additional evidence that RNA virus IBs are important immunomodulatory complexes within infected cells. Importance Many viruses replicate almost entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells; however, how these pathogens are able to compartmentalise their life cycle to provide favourable conditions for replication and to avoid the litany of antiviral detection mechanisms in the cytoplasm remains relatively uncharacterised. In this paper we show that bovine RSV (bRSV), which infects cattle, does this by generating inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm of infected cells. We confirm that both bRSV and human RSV viral RNA replication takes place in these inclusion bodies, likely meaning these organelles are a functionally conserved feature of this group of viruses (the orthopneumoviruses). Importantly, we also showed that these organelles are able to capture important innate immune transcription factors (in this case NF-KB), blocking the normal signalling processes that tell the nucleus the cell is infected, which may help us to understand how these viruses cause disease.

Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) is an important cause of respiratory disease in young cattle and is closely related to human RSV (HRSV), which causes severe respiratory disease in infants and the elderly. The RSV genome encodes a small hydrophobic (SH) protein with viroporin activity. Previous studies have shown that recombinant BRSV lacking the SH gene (rBRSVΔSH) is attenuated in the lungs, but not in the upper respiratory tract, of calves and mucosal vaccination with rBRSVΔSH induced long-lasting protective immunity. Attenuation of rBRSVΔSH may be due to the ability of this virus to induce an early innate response as rBRSVΔSH induces higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines than wild-type (wt) rBRSV. In this study, we investigated the effects of the BRSV SH protein on NF-κB p65 phosphorylation, a master step in the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Expression of SH resulted in the inhibition of NF-κB p65 phosphorylation in response to BRSV infection and extracellular lipopolysaccharide, and a reduction in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, rBRSVΔSH does not inhibit NF-κB p65 phosphorylation in bovine antigen-presenting cells, including monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells, resulting in increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased activation of T cells compared to cells infected with wt BRSV. These findings highlight an important role for the BRSV SH protein in immune modulation.

The measles virus (MeV), a member of the genus Morbillivirus, is an established pathogen of humans. A key feature of morbilliviruses is their ability to spread by virus–cell and cell–cell fusion. The latter process, which leads to syncytia formation in vitro and in vivo, is driven by the viral fusion (F) and haemagglutinin (H) glycoproteins. In this study, we demonstrate that MeV glycoproteins are sensitive to inhibition by bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST2/Tetherin/CD317) proteins. BST2 overexpression causes a large reduction in MeV syncytia expansion. Using quantitative cell–cell fusion assays, immunolabeling, and biochemistry we further demonstrate that ectopically expressed BST2 directly inhibits MeV cell–cell fusion. This restriction is mediated by the targeting of the MeV H glycoprotein, but not other MeV proteins. Using truncation mutants, we further establish that the C-terminal glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor of BST2 is required for the restriction of MeV replication in vitro and cell–cell fusion. By extending our study to the ruminant morbillivirus peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) and its natural host, sheep, we also confirm this is a broad and cross-species specific phenotype.

22Infections of humans and livestock with African trypanosomes are treated with drugs 23 introduced decades ago that are not always fully effective and often have severe 24 side effects. Here, the trypanosome haptoglobin-haemoglobin receptor (HpHbR) has 25 been exploited as a route of uptake for an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) that is 26 completely effective against Trypanosoma brucei in the standard mouse model of 27 infection. Recombinant human anti-HpHbR monoclonal antibodies were isolated and 28 shown to be internalised in a receptor-dependent manner. Antibodies were 29 conjugated to a pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) toxin and killed T. brucei in vitro at 30 picomolar concentrations. A single therapeutic dose (0.25 mg/kg) of a HpHbR 31 antibody-PBD conjugate completely cured a T. brucei mouse infection within 2 days 32 with no re-emergence of infection over a subsequent time course of 77 days. These 33 experiments provide a demonstration of how ADCs can be exploited to treat 34 protozoal diseases that desperately require new therapeutics. 35 36 Author Summary 37Here we show that antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) can be re-purposed from 38 cancer immunotherapeutics to anti-protozoals by changing the specificity of the 39 immunoglobulin to target a trypanosome cell surface receptor. Trypanosomes were 40 used as a model system due to the availability of receptor null cell lines that allowed 41 the unambiguous demonstration that ADCs targeted to a parasite surface receptor 42 could be specifically internalised via receptor-mediated endocytosis. A single low 43 dose of the resulting ADC was able to cure a stage 1 mouse model of trypanosome 44 infection. We have used toxins and conjugation chemistry that are identical to anti-45 3 cancer ADCs demonstrating the ability to piggy-back onto the huge research efforts 46 and resources that are being invested in the development of such ADCs. 47The potential for development of ADCs against a wide range of human pathogens is 48 vast, where only epitope binding sites need vary in order to provide selectivity. This 49 provides a far-reaching opportunity for the rapid development of novel anti-50 protozoals for the targeted killing of a wide range of pathogens that cause disease 51 worldwide, especially in developing countries.

Infections of humans and livestock with African trypanosomes are treated with drugs introduced decades ago that are not always fully effective and often have severe side effects. Here, the trypanosome haptoglobin-haemoglobin receptor (HpHbR) has been exploited as a route of uptake for an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) that is completely effective against Trypanosoma brucei in the standard mouse model of infection. Recombinant human anti-HpHbR monoclonal antibodies were isolated and shown to be internalised in a receptor-dependent manner. Antibodies were conjugated to a pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) toxin and killed T . brucei in vitro at picomolar concentrations. A single therapeutic dose (0.25 mg/kg) of a HpHbR antibody-PBD conjugate completely cured a T . brucei mouse infection within 2 days with no re-emergence of infection over a subsequent time course of 77 days. These experiments provide a demonstration of how ADCs can be exploited to treat protozoal diseases that desperately require new therapeutics.