Animal models that are reliably reproducible, appropriate analogues to the clinical condition they are used to investigate, and that offer minimal morbidity and periprocedural mortality to the subject are the keystone to the preclinical development of translational technologies. For bone tissue engineering, a number of small animal models exist. Here we describe the protocol for one such model, the rat calvarial defect. This versatile model allows for evaluation of biomaterials and bone tissue engineering approaches within a reproducible, nonload-bearing orthotopic site. Critical steps to ensure appropriate experimental control and troubleshooting tips learned through extensive experience with this model are provided. The surgical procedure itself takes approximately 30 minutes to complete with approximately 2 hours of perioperative care, and tissue harvest is generally performed 4 to 12 weeks postoperatively. Several analytical techniques are presented, which evaluate the cellular and extracellular matrix components, functionality and mineralization, including histological, mechanical and radiographic methods.

The controlled delivery of growth factors and cells within biomaterial carriers can enhance and accelerate functional bone formation. The carrier system can be designed with preprogrammed release kinetics to deliver bioactive molecules in a localized, spatiotemporal manner most similar to the natural wound healing process. The carrier can also act as an extracellular matrix-mimicking substrate for promoting osteoprogenitor cellular infiltration and proliferation for integrative tissue repair. This review discusses the role of various regenerative factors involved in bone healing and their appropriate combinations with different delivery systems for augmenting bone regeneration. The general requirements of protein, cell and gene therapy are described, with elaboration on how the selection of materials, configurations and processing affects growth factor and cell delivery and regenerative efficacy in both in vitro and in vivo applications for bone tissue engineering.

Advances in tissue engineering technologies will enable regeneration of complex tissues and organs.

An injectable, biodegradable hydrogel composite of oligo(poly(ethylene glycol) fumarate) (OPF) and gelatin microparticles (MPs) has been investigated as a cell and growth factor carrier for cartilage tissue engineering applications. In this study, hydrogel composites with different swelling ratios were prepared by crosslinking OPF macromers with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) repeating units of varying molecular weights from 1,000 ~ 35,000. Rabbit marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and MPs loaded with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) were encapsulated in the hydrogel composites in order to examine the effect of the swelling ratio of the hydrogel composites on the chondrogenic differentiation of encapsulated rabbit marrow MSCs both in the presence and absence of TGF-β1. The swelling ratio of the hydrogel composites increased as the PEG molecular weight in the OPF macromers increased. Chondrocyte-specific genes were expressed at higher levels in groups containing TGF-β1-loaded MPs and varied with the swelling ratio of the hydrogel composites. OPF hydrogel composites with PEG repeating units of molecular weight 35,000 and 10,000 with TGF-β1-loaded MPs exhibited a 159 ± 95 and a 89 ± 31 fold increase in type II collagen gene expression at day 28, respectively, while OPF hydrogel composites with PEG repeating units of molecular weight 3,000 and 1,000 with TGF-β1-loaded MPs showed a 27 ± 10 and a 17 ± 7 fold increase in type II collagen gene expression, respectively, as compared to the composites with blank MPs at day 0. The results indicate that chondrogenic differentiation of encapsulated rabbit marrow MSCs within OPF hydrogel composites could be affected by their swelling ratio, thus suggesting the potential of OPF composite hydrogels as part of a novel strategy for controlling the differentiation of stem cells.

The pronounced biological influence of the tumor microenvironment on cancer progression and metastasis has gained increased recognition over the past decade, yet most preclinical antineoplastic drug testing is still reliant on conventional 2D cell culture systems. Although monolayer cultures recapitulate some of the phenotypic traits observed clinically, they are limited in their ability to model the full range of microenvironmental cues, such as ones elicited by 3D cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. To address these shortcomings, we established an ex vivo 3D Ewing sarcoma model that closely mimics the morphology, growth kinetics, and protein expression profile of human tumors. We observed that Ewing sarcoma cells cultured in porous 3D electrospun poly(e-caprolactone) scaffolds not only were more resistant to traditional cytotoxic drugs than were cells in 2D monolayer culture but also exhibited remarkable differences in the expression pattern of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor/mammalian target of rapamycin pathway. This 3D model of the bone microenvironment may have broad applicability for mechanistic studies of bone sarcomas and exhibits the potential to augment preclinical evaluation of antineoplastic drug candidates for these malignancies.tissue engineering | tumor model | biological therapy | connective tissue D espite the primacy of the cancer cell's dysregulated genotype [e.g., a near universal translocation of the Ewing sarcoma (EWS) breakpoint region 1 gene in EWS cells] as the initial step in malignant transformation, it has become increasingly apparent that the overall tumor phenotype is also dictated by the 3D tumor microenvironment (1-4). Nonetheless, studies of cancer biology and evaluation of antineoplastic drug efficacy remain heavily dependent on conventional 2D cell culture systems despite their limited ability to reflect the 3D tumor architecture, extracellular matrix (ECM), and surrounding cell types that comprise the in vivo tumor milieu.To overcome some of these constraints, 3D in vitro models such as spheroid and gel systems have been extensively studied and, compared with 2D monolayer culture, appear to better mimic the profound effects that the in vivo 3D environment has upon the human tumor phenotype (5-9). For example, malignant cells cultured in 3D exhibit increased chemoresistance (10, 11) and decreased cell proliferation (12), and assume specific phenotypes inducible only under a 3D context, such as angiogenic capability (13-15). Furthermore, striking differences in signaling pathways targeted by proven and experimental therapies have been observed in 3D tumor models (16-18). Accordingly, heightened awareness of the importance of 3D culture for cancer cells has resulted in the increasing use of spheroid culture systems for cancer research. However, these non-adhesion-mediated systems provide poor control over the tumor architecture and cell-cell interactions; as a result of culture conditions that prohibit cellular attachment onto surrounding surfaces, ce...