The construction industry lacks a comprehensive and holistic way of utilising Building Information Modelling (BIM) throughout a building's life-cycle, where the transition to Asset Management (AM) and Facility Management (FM) is particularly lacking. Enterprise BIM (EBIM) is an emerging, unexplored, holistic organisational concept that is designed to support and optimise business management throughout the entire life-cycles of buildings and infrastructure. However, current understanding and implementation of EBIM is rare. To fix this gap in knowledge, this paper defines the EBIM concept and assesses associated perspectives from research and practice in order to integrate BIM more strongly into the enterprise's core processes and other needs at different levels within the organisation and externally. To achieve a higher and more efficient utilisation of building data, however, EBIMs need to develop a clear life-cycle-based information management strategy, including coordination and communication between all stakeholders. The paper highlights and discusses the importance of both available and missing standards related to the effective implementation of EBIM. Several existing open standards have been identified to help strengthen the EBIM concept. The paper identifies a need to develop standards to integrate BIM and IoT (the Internet of Things) and standards that can handle both structured and unstructured data. The authors have conducted a wide-ranging review of research, practice and existing standards and considers today's potential for using EBIM, as well as discusses existing challenges and future research needs. Furthermore, the EBIM concept is contextualised by providing a case study with focus on cleaning. This study identifies a need to develop best practices in interdisciplinary collaborative projects. Such practical implementation requires integrated and standardised information and technology management and the exploitation of the available technologies in interdisciplinary interaction with those involved in the various processes and the flow of information throughout the life-cycle.
Geospatial information has been indispensable for many application fields, including traffic planning, urban planning, and energy management. Geospatial data are mainly stored in relational databases that have been developed over several decades, and most geographic information applications are desktop applications. With the arrival of big data, geospatial information applications are also being modified into, e.g., mobile platforms and Geospatial Web Services, which require changeable data schemas, faster query response times, and more flexible scalability than traditional spatial relational databases currently have. To respond to these new requirements, NoSQL (Not only SQL) databases are now being adopted for geospatial data storage, management, and queries. This paper reviews state-of-the-art geospatial data processing in the 10 most popular NoSQL databases. We summarize the supported geometry objects, main geometry functions, spatial indexes, query languages, and data formats of these 10 NoSQL databases. Moreover, the pros and cons of these NoSQL databases are analyzed in terms of geospatial data processing. A literature review and analysis showed that current document databases may be more suitable for massive geospatial data processing than are other NoSQL databases due to their comprehensive support for geometry objects and data formats and their performance, geospatial functions, index methods, and academic development. However, depending on the application scenarios, graph databases, key-value, and wide column databases have their own advantages.
This study aims to improve the interoperability between the application domains of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) by linking and harmonizing core information concepts. Many studies have investigated the integration of application schemas and data instances according to the BIM model IFC and the GIS model CityGML. This study investigates integration between core abstract concepts from IFC and ISO/TC 211 standards for GIS—independent of specific application schemas. A pattern was developed for conversion from IFC EXPRESS schemas to Unified Modelling Language (UML) models according to ISO/TC 211 standards. Core concepts from the two application domains were linked in the UML model, and conversions to implementation schemas for the Geography Markup Language (GML) and EXPRESS were tested. The results showed that the IFC model could be described as an ISO/TC 211 compliant UML model and that abstract concepts from ISO/TC 211 standards could be linked to core IFC concepts. Implementation schemas for BIM and GIS formats could be derived from the UML model, enabling implementation in applications from both domains without conversion of concepts. Future work should include refined linking and harmonization of core abstract concepts from the two application domains.
This study aims to improve the implementation of models of geospatial information in Web Ontology Language (OWL). Large amounts of geospatial information are maintained in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) based on models according to the Unified Modeling Language (UML) and standards from ISO/TC 211 and the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). Sharing models and geospatial information in the Semantic Web will increase the usability and value of models and information, as well as enable linking with spatial and non-spatial information from other domains. Methods for conversion from UML to OWL for basic concepts used in models of geospatial information have been studied and evaluated. Primary conversion challenges have been identified with specific attention to whether adapted rules for UML modelling could contribute to improved conversions. Results indicated that restrictions related to abstract classes, unions, compositions and code lists in UML are challenging in the Open World Assumption (OWA) on which OWL is based. Two conversion challenges are addressed by adding more semantics to UML models: global properties and reuse of external concepts. The proposed solution is formalized in a UML profile supported by rules and recommendations and demonstrated with a UML model based on the Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) standard ISO 14825 Geographic Data Files (GDF). The scope of the resulting ontology will determine to what degree the restrictions shall be maintained in OWL, and different conversion methods are needed for different scopes.
The information content in a Building Permit Application includes a BIM part (documentation of selected parts of a planned building) and a GIS part (its consequences for the neighbours and impact for neighbourhood/society). The work with this case have several steps: overall model mapping, content requirement and filter rule definitions, feature instance mapping and automated quality check in every step. Our finding is hopefully useful also for others. The principles for mapping between GIS and BIM have been investigated. The national spatial infrastructure in Norway is based on the ISO19100 family of standards, where the General Feature Model as defined in ISO19109 is of special relevance. On the BIM side, ISO16739 IFC is important. The paper compares these two, and presents a list of similarities and differences, relevant for the case. Filtering information from the IFC dataset has always been important for the BIM society. The relevant building permit requirements is mapped into contents requirements and filtering rules using BIM-supported "encoding languages" (mvdXML and simpleBIM template). Mapping the GIS information over to IFC encoding has been investigated. Some challenges are discovered and possible solutions are described.
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